VII. En recherche qualitative : les techniques de recueil
Afin de recueillir vos données, vous allez devoir choisir une méthodologie. Vous pouvez vous aider de ce tableau élaborer par un travail de l’OMS
A. Stratégies d’échantillonnage
Contrairement à la recherche quantitative, on ne recherche pas à obtenir un échantillon le plus représentatif possible. On cherche à obtenir un petit nombre de sujets « exemplaires », qui représentent une perspective plutôt qu’une population.
On cherche à recruter des participants qui feront ressortir des divergences qui existent au sein d’une population ciblée par rapport à la question de recherche .
Il existe plusieurs stratégies pour recruter des sujets :
Echantillonnage raisonné :
Définition : procédure d’échantillonnage non probabiliste consistant à sélectionner des participants considérés comme typiques de la population cible. Cette procédure est destinée à garantir la validité externe des résultats. La méthode des quotas est une méthode d’échantillonnage raisonné.
Synonyme : échantillonnage orienté, ciblé
Anglais : purposive sampling, purposeful sampling
Technique la boule de neige :
Définition : identification des sujets d’intérêt à partir de personnes qui connaissent d’autres personnes susceptibles d’être de bons participants à une enquête.
Anglais : snowball sampling
Echantillonnage théorique :
Définition : modalité d’échantillonnage raisonné dans une recherche naturaliste consistant à sélectionner les participants selon un rationnel fondé sur les concepts qui émergent en cours d’étude , de sorte que les questions clés soient correctement représentées.
Anglais : theoretical sampling
II. Entretien
A. Entretien individuel
Définition : méthode d’enquête qualitative reposant sur une situation individuelle de face à face entre un interviewer et un interviewé .
Anglais : interview
Synonyme : entretien en face à face
L’entretien est une simple communication entre 2 personnes.
Les principaux types d’entretien individuel sont définis ci-dessous :
Entretien structuré à l’aide d’un guide d’entretien où certaines questions sont prédéfinies.
Entretien semi-structuré où le chercheur peut s’aider de quelques questions ouvertes .
Entretien compréhensif (non structuré) dans lequel la personne interrogée décide du cours et du sujet de l’entretien.
Entretien biographique :
Définition : entretien en face à face au cours duquel l’enquêteur fait raconter à la personne enquêtée une ou plusieurs tranches de vie . Il s’agit d’un entretien non directif, sans guide d’entretien, qui peut durer plusieurs heures.
Anglais : biographical interview
Comme le montre le tableau ci-dessus, on comprend qu’il existe une continuité entre ces différents types d’entretien. L’entretien structuré permet de ne pas se perdre ni se laisser embarquer dans son entretien tandis que l’entretien non structuré nécessite une certaine expérience pour en tirer des données intéressantes.
Règles à respecter :
Respecter l’emploi du temps de l’informateur :
Créer une atmosphère de bienveillance et de détente.
Les types de questions :
Questions ouvertes :
Définition : question pour laquelle la personne interrogée répond comme elle le désire , sans avoir à choisir parmi différentes réponses préétablies. Certaines questions très larges, invitant l’interviewé à se raconter, sont appelées « consignes ». Ce type de question a pour avantage de donner accès à une pensée complexe mais est difficile à coder , car nécessitant la construction de catégories complexes. On les retrouve surtout dans les entretiens ouverts.
Anglais : open-ended question, open question
Ex : Qu’est ce que vous en pensez ? Comment avez vous travaillé durant vos études ?
Descriptive . Ex : Pourriez vous me décrire comment vous apprenez un cours ?
Narrative . Ex : Pourriez vous me décrire comment vous avez réussi à valider votre examen ?
Structurale . Ex : Quelles sont les principales étapes vous permettant de construire votre référentiel pédagogique ?
Contraste . Ex : Quelles est la différence entre un bon et un mauvais cours ?
Evaluative . Ex : Comment vous sentez vous après un mauvais cours sur la recherche ?
Circulaire . Ex : Comment pensez vous que votre enseignant considère la façon dont vous apprenez ses cours ?
Comparative . Ex : Quelles différences voyez-vous avec l’apprentissage d’autres cours ?
Prompt : question courte, spontanée, rebondissant sur le discours de l’informateur. Ex : Comment ? Vous pouvez m’en dire plus ?
Questions fermées :
Définition : question pour laquelle l’individu choisit sa réponse (modalité de réponse) dans une liste préétablie . Ce type de question a pour avantage d’être simple à coder , mais est souvent peu informatif et directif . On les retrouve fréquemment dans les entretiens standardisés.
Anglais : closed question
Ex : la question « Avez-vous fait une thèse en recherche qualitative ? » attend une réponse de type « oui/non »
Questions à éviter :
Trop empathique . Ex : il semble que l’apprentissage de la recherche médicale soit particulièrement ennuyeux, non ?
Inductive . Ex : j’ai l’impression que les enseignants ne sont pas bien formés à la pédagogie… Peut-être même est-ce pire ?
Comment choisir son informateur ?
Son choix se fait sur des critères qu’aura choisi le chercheur. On retrouve principalement :
Le thème
Ex : si on étudie les difficultés dans les réalisation d’une thèse en recherche qualitative, on choisira préférentiellement des internes de médecine générale (plutôt que des chirurgiens déjà thésés et installés)
Le type d’informations requise
Ex : si on étudie toujours la réalisation d’une thèse en recherche qualitative, on choisira soit des internes de médecine générale, soit des directeurs de thèse, soit des enseignants-chercheurs en médecine générale. Cela dépendra de ce qu’on recherche.
L’identité du chercheur
Ex : si je suis moi-même enseignant en recherche qualitative, il vaut mieux éviter de choisir des étudiants que j’encadre.
Le contexte et ses contraintes : disponibilité des informateurs, période de l’année, problèmes logistiques…
Ex : toujours dans la même étude, travaillant à Paris, je vais éviter de choisir des informateurs habitants dans le sud de la France (trop loin), professeurs universitaire de médecine générale (car souvent peu disponibles), avec qui j’ai l’habitude de travailler (risque de biais)
NB : Parfois, on peut sélectionner un « informateur-clef » qui correspond à un participant ayant une expertise particulière sur le sujet qui nous intéresse . Cet informateur pourra fournir des informations clefs pour comprendre le sujet.
Déroulement d’un entretien type :
Préparer un cadre accueillant et bienveillant
Présentation du chercheur et du thème de l’entretien
Demande de consentement pour l’enregistrement de l’entretien
Identification de l’informateur (nom, âge, sexe, profession)
Initiation des questions : au début simples, ouvertes et sans controverse
Ecoute active : essayer d’aller en profondeur des questions et des opinions de l’informateur, tout en restant fluide dans la conversation (ne pas reposer la même question, ne pas changer brusquement de sujet). Voici quelques astuces d’écoute active :
Montrez par une réaction non verbale que vous êtes en train d’écouter . Ex : hochement de la tête, mimique….
Paraphrasez , répétez avec vos termes ce qu’a dit l’informateur pour bien en saisir le sens. Ex : Informateur : « Moi je pense que les cours à la fac, ça ne sert à rien pour apprendre la recherche médicale. » Chercheur : « Vous voulez dire que vous pensez que les cours en présentiel ne sont pas intéressant ? »
Demandez davantage de détails . Ex : « Vous dites que les cours à la fac ne servent à rien, vous avez une mauvaise expérience de cours à la fac ? »
Acceptez les pauses pour laisser des temps de réflexion à l’informateur
Créez, si besoin, des situations hypothétiques pour éclaircir les attitudes de l’informateur. Ex : « Et si vous étiez le responsable de l’enseignement à la faculté, qu’est ce que vous auriez fait…? »
1. Entretien structuré
Définition : entretien reposant sur l’utilisation d’un questionnaire structuré du type sondage , administré par un enquêteur. Il est souvent utilisé dans les études quantitatives et précédé d’une analyse qualitative afin de construire des questions pertinentes.
Anglais : structured interview
Synonyme : entretien directif
2. Entretien semi-structuré
Définition : entretien en face à face comportant des questions ouvertes. L’interviewer utilise un guide d’entretien dont les thèmes ne sont pas nécessairement abordés dans l’ordre. Son rôle consiste à effectuer les bonnes relances aux moments opportuns afin de balayer tout le guide d’entretien, sans pour autant influencer l’interviewé dans ses réponses ou lui couper la parole.
Anglais : semistructured interview
Synonyme : entretien semi-directif
Dans cet entretien, les thèmes couverts sont spécifiés à l’avance mais l’investigateur décide de la séquence et de la formulation des questions pendant l’entretien. Il utilisera un guide d’entretien avec des questions pré spécifiées.
Bien que les réponses demeurent libres, le degré de liberté de la discussion est plus restreinte que lors d’un entretien compréhensif mais plus libre qu’un entretien structuré.
Avantage :
Systématisation plus facile
Rapide , permettant d’entretenir des informateurs redoutant la longueur d’entretiens compréhensifs
Inconvénients :
Certains thèmes peuvent être oubliés (par rapport à l’entretien structuré)
Caractère comparable des réponses limités entre plusieurs informateurs car la séquence et la formulation des questions est variable.
3. Entretien compréhensif
Définition : entretien en face à face visant à explorer un nombre limité de thèmes en détail. À la différence de l’entretien classique, l’interviewé n’est pas considéré comme un simple informateur, mais comme un partenaire. Il s’agit d’éviter les « réponses de surface » et de chercher à dévoiler la complexité. L’entretien se fait sur le mode de la « conversation », en s’appuyant sur des consignes et non sur des questions/réponses.
Anglais : in-depth interview
Synonyme : entretien approfondi
Lors de cet entretien, on part du principe que l’informateur est plus aptes à expliquer ses pensées et ses idées que le chercheur . Il doit le laisser parler, l’écouter attentivement et le motiver pour qu’il continue à exprimer ses idées.
En pratique, l’entretien n’est jamais totalement non directif : le chercheur se laisse guider par la spontanéité de l’informateur mais il doit s’assurer qu’il en s’écarte pas trop du sujet étudié et que tous les éléments de la question de recherche ont été étudiés.
Quand utiliser l’entretien compréhensif ?
Pour obtenir des informations sur les gens difficiles à approcher ou les populations marginalisées . Ex : personnes sans domicile fixe, prostituée
Pour obtenir des informations approfondies sur un cas (habitude, coutume, pensée…). Ex : étude du cas d’une personne.
Pour approfondir des informations sur un sujet déjà « connu ».
Pour recueillir des informations sur un événement récent ou ancien .
Critères de choix d’un informateur :
Disponibilité de l’informateur (entretien long)
Disposition d’esprit
Intérêt pour le sujet de recherche
Ouverture d’esprit sur le sujet
Connaissance du sujet
B. Entretien collectif
Définition : méthode d’entretien de groupe, habituellement considérée comme une technique d’entretien semi-structuré, reposant explicitement sur l’interaction au sein du groupe pour générer des données .
Anglais : focus group
Synonyme : groupe d’expression
Avantages :
Collecte de nombreuses information, de manière rapide et peu coûteuse
Entretien bien accepté par les participants car ressemble à une discussion naturelle
Intérêt dans la phase de recherche exploratoire , notamment si le milieu est peu connu
Accessible aux non-experts de la recherche qualitative
Inconvénient :
Intérêt limité dans l’exploration en profondeur d’un sujet délicat
Limite dans la généralisabilité des résultats dans la communauté
Un personnage fort risque d’influencer les réponses des autres participants
Règles de bases :
Choisir un lieu adapté garantissant un bon déroulement de la discussion
Attention aux relations hiérarchiques entre les participants et à la présence d’un personnage fort
Nombre limité de participants : 6 à 10
Participation volontaire
Encadrement par un modérateur
L’observateur observe le groupe et prend des notes sans intervenir
Durée 1 à 2 heures
1. Le modérateur :
Définition : dans un entretien collectif, c’est la personne chargée d’animer le groupe et dont l’objectif est de faire émerger les différents points de vue . Il doit bien maîtriser la technique de conduite de réunion par la reformulation, la clarification, et l’esprit de synthèse. Il s’appuie sur un guide d’entretien.
Anglais : moderator, facilitator
Synonyme : animateur
Son rôle :
Accueillir et souhaiter la bienvenue aux participants
Introduire le sujet et suivre le guide de question
Orienter la discussion autour du sujet tout en permettant une certaine liberté
S’assurer une égale distribution de la parole (freiner les plus logorrhéiques et inciter les plus timides)
Ecouter attentivement chaque contribution
Approfondir le sujet en faisant office de « miroir » : résumer les discussions, comparer les points, demander des explications complémentaires…
Les erreurs classiques :
Suggérer des réponses (éviter les questions par « pourquoi ? »)
Exposer sa propre opinion (risque d’influencer les participants)
Porter un jugement sur les propos des participants
Laisser un individu dominer la discussion (supérieur hiérarchique, personnalité dominante, « expert »…)
Juger les réponses : il n’y a pas de réponse « bonne » ou « fausse », toute réponse doit être discutée et valorisée
Ne pas consoler ou réconforter un participant qui expose son problème
2. L’observateur :
Définition : Dans un entretien collectif, c’est la personne connaissant la thématique de l’enquête, chargée d’assister l’animateur . Il s’occupe des enregistrements audio (voire vidéo) des séances et prend des notes sur les aspects non verbaux.
Anglais : Assistant moderator
Synonyme : secrétaire
Son rôle :
Supervise l’enregistrement audio ou vidéo
Elabore un compte-rendu de la discussion comprenant les sujets traités, les communications non verbales et les attitudes
Il peut transmettre des questions supplémentaires au modérateur
Fait la transcription de la discussion
3. Déroulement d’un focus group :
a. Avant la séance :
Choisir les participants et convenir d’une date suffisamment à l’avance
Transmettre le sujet général du focus group sans indiquer le sujet de la discussion
Préparer un guide de questions
Choisir un lieu neutre, disponible et tranquille
Choisir son matériel d’enregistrement et le tester
Préparer une collation pour mettre à l’aise les participants (boissons, nourriture…)
b. Déroulement théorique et chronologique d’une séance :
D’après schumacher 1995, la discussion peut se dérouler selon le schéma suivant :
Approfondissement du thème : une fois le groupe arrivé à la thématique d’intérêt, le modérateur incite tous les participants à exposer leur opinion et leur point de vue. Selon le principe de « l’écoute active », il va proposer aux participants d’expliquer leurs opinions (raisons, circonstances, influence, sentiments…) afin de ne pas rester sur des déclarations superficielles.
Focalisation : débutant par des questions générales, le modérateur va orienter la discussion vers le thème de focalisation en posant des questions de plus en plus orientées. Il n’est pas nécessaire de poser toutes les questions préparées sur le guide, il faut garder une souplesse afin que la discussion s’oriente naturellement vers le thème désiré.
Initiation de la discussion : le modérateur expose le sujet de la discussion et se présente.
Ex : « Je m’appelle Nicolas, j’ai 29 ans et je suis interne en médecine générale. Lors de mes études médicales, j’ai été confronté à des difficultés pour comprendre et acquérir des compétences en recherche médicale… »
Présentation : le modérateur initie le premier tour de table pour que chaque participant se présente. Cette phase permet aux intervenants de faire connaissance et de s’exprimer en groupes dans un environnement serein.
Ex :« Comme nous allons passer un peu de temps ensemble, je propose qu’on se présente chacun son tour afin de faire connaissance. »
Consentement : expliquer l’intérêt de l’enregistrement de la séance et demander l’autorisation des participants.
Ex :« Afin de garantir la validité scientifique et la reproductibilité de cette étude, avec votre autorisation, nous allons enregistrer votre propos tout en garantissant votre anonymat. »
Attitude bienveillante et mise à l’aise des participants en leur expliquant la thématique générale et les modalités de déroulement du focus group
Ex :« Bienvenue à tous, merci de nous donner un peu de votre temps pour discuter de la pédagogie en recherche médicale. Nous allons discuter ensemble pendant 1 à 2 heures sur cette thématique. »
Le modérateur vise à développer un flux d’échange entre les participants sans avoir besoin d‘intervenir sur le modèle du « jeux de billard »
Encourager la discussion et les interactions entre les participants en rebondissant sur les opinions ou en comparant des affirmations qui s’opposent.
Ex : « L’un d’entre vous a dit que l’apprentissage de la recherche médicale par des groupes de tutorat n’était pas efficace ; selon un autre point de vue, cette méthode est largement utilisée et incitée dans les facultés françaises… Qu’en pensent les autres ? »
Conclusion de la discussion :
Résumé des opinions : pour être sûr d’avoir bien compris les idées, le modérateur les résume à la fin de la discussion.
Rectification : afin d’éviter toute mauvaise interprétation, le modérateur propose aux participants de rectifier certains propos mal compris.
Remerciement de participants et mise en valeur de l’importance des données collectées pour la question de recherche.
Ex : « Si j’ai bien compris, les principales opinions soulevées durant cette discussion étaient… Certains ont souligné que… d’autres pensaient plutôt que… Mais vous étiez tous d’accord sur … Ai-je bien résumé vos idées ? Avez-vous des rectifications à faire ou des choses à ajouter ?… Alors merci de votre participation et du temps que vous nous avez accordé. »
III. Observation
Définition : méthode de recueil de données à partir du regard porté sur une situation . L’objectif est d’observer au plus près les pratiques , avec le minimum de filtres et sans que la situation soit modifiée du fait de l’observation.
Anglais : observation
On en peut pas décrire sans interpréter une observation. La transmission d’une observation passe à travers un certains nombres de filtres d’interprétation :
Filtre personnel qui dépend de l’observateur (sa sensibilité, son ouverture…), de ses expériences antérieurs (son vécut, ses traumatismes…), de sa formation (médecin, généraliste…), son éducation…
Filtre linguistique : la traduction de pensées pourra être formulée par des mots et des concepts différents
Filtre culturel : en fonction de sa culture
Ex : il existe de nombreuses façon de décrire la neige et la glace pour un esquimo. Si on essaie de traduire par le mot français « neige », on perd un grand nombre de concepts.
Différence entretien – observation :
Les entretiens produisent des données sur le comportement rapporté tandis que les observations produisent des données sur le comportement actuel. Il existe une différence entre ce que les gens déclarent et la façon dont ils agissent.
En combinant ces 2 méthodes (observation – entretien), on réalise une triangulation des données , ce qui permet une augmentation de la qualité interne de l’étude.
Objectifs de l’observation :
Evaluer les capacités d’une personne
Evaluer le rôle et les statuts des acteurs
Etudier les relations entre les acteurs
Recueillir les données sur un phénomène
Etudier un comportement dans une situation donnée
Etudier des critères non explicites (tabous ?)
On distingue 2 type d’approches en fonction de la question de recherche :
Soit on réalise une observation directe avec une approche plus inductive . Elle permet une approche globale systématique des interactions entre les acteurs, de leur rôle ou de leur comportement dans une situation donnée.
Ex : évaluation de la relation entre le médecin et le patient lors de la prise de tension artérielle.
Soit on réalise une observation indirecte de documents ou d’enregistrement avec une approche déductive . Elle permet une évaluation en fonction de critères prédéterminés.
Ex : évaluation de la prise de tension artérielle par l’observation de vidéo filmant un médecin prenant la tension à un patient.
Avantages et inconvénients :
Avantages :
Permet de capter des comportements au moment où ils se produisent (pas d’intermédiaires)
Permet de recueillir des données concrètes parfois quantifiables
Assure une authenticité des comportements
Inconvénients :
La présence de l’observateur peut modifier le comportement du sujet observé
Limite du caractère objectif de l’observation
Risque d’interprétation des données
A. Observation directe
Définition : mode d’observation où l’observateur est présent sans intervenir et essaye d’être le moins visible possible.
Anglais : direct observation
1. Observation participante
Définition : mode d’observation où l’observateur occupe un rôle précis et participe à l’action . Cette méthode permet au chercheur de devenir le membre actif de la culture étudiée, il s’immerge afin de penser et d’agir de la même manière que les membres du groupe.
Anglais : participant observation, participant-based observation
Avantages et inconvénients :
Avantage :
Facilitation du recueil de données grâce à la création d’une relation et la diminution de la réactivité
Aide à formuler des questions pertinentes
Permet de comprendre les processus, les événements et les relations dans leur contexte social
Inconvénient :
Chronophage
Difficulté d’intégration dans la communauté
Capacité à être un bon observateur et un bon rapporteur
2. Observation non participante
Définition : l’observateur a un point de vue extérieur . Il ne participe pas et doit être le plus « invisible » possible.
Anglais : non-participant observation
Observation structurée :
Définition : le chercheur est en « dehors », non participant . Il observe et fait le compte rendu de manière prédéterminée. Une grille d’observation formalisée est établie dans laquelle sont enregistrés systématiquement les éléments prévus dans la grille.
Synonyme : observation méthodique
Avantage :
Dégage des données précises et numériques se prêtant à l’analyse statistique
Peut être répétée pour suivre le changement de comportement dans le temps.
Inconvénient :
Le problème devant être étudié doit être bien défini .
La formation des observateurs est intense et prend du temps.
La structure prédéterminée des observations limite la découverte d’autres comportements pertinents.
Observation non structurée :
Définition : l’observateur est « dehors », non participant. Ce qui est observé est défini en termes généraux . Il vise à observer le comportement dans un contexte global.
Synonyme : observation libre
Avantages :
Permet de découvrir les aspects inconnus d’un problème.
Permet l’exploration et la découverte de « nouveautés ».
Permet de comprendre des comportements dans leur contexte physique et social.
Inconvénients :
Ne fournit pas de mesures précises du comportement
Ne peut pas être utilisée pour suivre les changements du comportement.
Observation non systématique
B. Observation indirecte
1. Analyse documentaire
Le chercheur analyse différents comptes rendus (réunions, documents…).
Cette méthode nécessite la réalisation d’une recherche documentaire exhaustive .
2. Analyse de transcription
Le chercheur analyse la transcription d’enregistrements audio ou vidéo .
IV. Méthodes de consensus
Définition : méthodes de synthèse de l’information et de gestion des discordances scientifiques, destinées à déterminer le niveau d’accord au sein d’un groupe donné.
Anglais : consensus methods
Dans la recherche médicale, lorsqu’on s’intéresse à un sujet de recherche, on peut être confronté à 2 situations :
Soit le sujet est bien connu et a déjà été étudié par des études de qualité satisfaisante, alors on peut réaliser une synthèse des connaissances, plus facilement utilisable pour la pratique. Les principales méthodologies de synthèse sont la méta-analyse en recherche quantitative et la méta-ethnographie en recherche qualitative.
Soit le sujet est mal connu et la publication le concernant insuffisante ou de mauvaise qualité. Il faudra alors réaliser une synthèse qualitative reposant sur la méthode de consensus . A partir de cette approche, on pourra obtenir :
Des estimations quantitatives (elles sont aussi appelées études semi-quantitatives ), à savoir :
La procédure Delphi
La technique du groupe nominal
La méthode RAND/UCLA
Des estimations qualitatives comme la conférence de consensus , les entretiens collectifs et les remue-méninges.
Quels points communs ?
Approche systématique et structurée
Procédure itératives (questions pour le Delphi et réunion pour le groupe nominal)
Relativement rapide
Peu coûteuse
Limite la prédominance d’une personnalité influente (personnalité forte, leader d’opinion ou supérieur hiérarchique)
Limite les conflits d’intérêt
Quelles différences ?
Caractéristiques comparées de la technique Delphi et de la procédure du groupe nominal
Objectifs :
Exploration : comprendre un champ de connaissance mal connu grâce à un panel d’experts
Evaluation : mesurer un consensus
Interventionnel : développer un consensus
Validité des méthodes de consensus :
Afin de s’assurer d’une validité de ces 2 méthodes de recherche, un certain nombre de points doivent être vérifiés :
Qualité des participants : le chercheur doit bien connaître la question de recherche pour obtenir des points suffisamment diversifiés lors du recrutement.
Si experts professionnels : avis et légitimité reconnus
Si patients : capacité suffisante d’idéation et de verbalisation
L’animateur : compétence d’animation, connaissance de la question et capacité à stimuler les participants et les accompagner dans leur réflexion
Qualité de(s) la(les) question (s) : la formulation doit permettre d’explorer tous les aspects de la question de recherche tout en permettant une bonne compréhension par les participants (parfois de niveau différent).
Qualité de l’analyse : qu’elle soit qualitative et/ou quantitative, l’analyse doit suivre une méthodologie prédéfinie avec une exploration et une justification des résultats.
A. Méthode Delphi
Définition : méthode de consensus reposant sur une série de questionnaires structurés visant habituellement à élaborer des décisions. A partir d’un groupe d’experts, cette méthode permet d’obtenir un avis final et consensuel.
Objectif :
Mettre en évidence des convergences et des consensus , elle est fréquemment utilisée dans le cadre de recommandations de bonnes pratiques.
Générer des solutions et des idées à partir d’un problème complexe
Quelques exemples issus de la revue Exercer :
Elaboration de critères d’évaluation de la prise en charge des consultations motivées par des plaintes abdominales chroniques en médecine générale. Ces critères étaient ensuite utilisés pour évaluer les pratiques .
Développement d’un dossier médical détenu par les patients ayant un cancer du sein et destiné à être partagé avec les professionnels de santé. Cette étude incluait des patients atteints de cancer, des médecins généralistes et des oncologues .
Elaboration d’un programme d’enseignement sur le psoriasis dans le cadre de la formation initiale pour les étudiants de 2ème cycles, réunissant généralistes, dermatologues et patients .
Elaboration d’un protocole diagnostique dans le cadre de la prise en charge des vertiges chez les patients âgés en médecine générale .
Avantages et inconvénients
Avantages :
Anonymat permettant d’éviter l’influence d’un personnage fort (supérieur hiérarchique, personnalité imposante)
Pas de contrainte géographique
Temps de réflexion laissé aux experts pour répondre et faire mûrir leur réflexion
Peu coûteux
Bonne acceptabilité des résultats
Inconvénients :
Technique longue dans le temps (il faut que tout le monde réponde…)
Ne retient pas les idées extrêmes bien que parfois novatrices et originales
Biais de sélection dans la constitution du panel d’experts
Absence de débat entre les participants.
1. Méthodologie, les p rincipales étapes :
Question de recherche : définition de la question de recherche et élaboration d’un 1er questionnaire à partir d’une synthèse de la littérature.
Sélection des experts :
Définition des critères de sélection des experts :
Inclusion : auteur ou coauteur d’articles scientifiques dans le domaine ?
Exclusion : conflit d’intérêt, indépendance pharmaceutique ?
NB : le terme « expert » correspond à toute personne ayant une bonne connaissance (clinique, pratique, politique, administrative…) du sujet étudié et non pas seulement ceux ayant une autorité scientifique de haut rang.
Elaboration d’une liste d’experts (15 à 60) : recueil des caractéristiques des experts inclus et anonymisation des données.
Contact avec les experts par email en leur proposant de participer à l’étude, et sollicitation de ces experts pour recommander d’autres experts.
Invitation à participer à l’étude en expliquant l’objectif, la procédure à suivre et ce qui leur sera demandé.
Administration du questionnaire :
1er tour ouvert et exploratoire : envoi d’un questionnaire initial élaboré à partir des connaissances des participants (via une enquête pilote), d’une revue de la littérature ou des opinions des chercheurs. Les réponses sont analysées puis le questionnaire est remanié et amélioré grâce aux suggestions des participants. Ce 1er tour doit permettre d’avoir une idée générale de l’opinion des experts.
2ème tour : envoi des principales idées proposées par le groupe (résultats quantitatif associés aux commentaires anonymes). Après leur avoir rappelé leurs propres réponses, les experts devront choisir les principaux items, les classer par ordre d’importance et justifier leur opinion (surtout si l’idée est originale).
Xème tour : envoi de cette nouvelle sélection classée par ordre d’importance avec les commentaires. Il est demandé aux experts de commenter les opinions les plus divergentes puis de s’exprimer à nouveaux sur les principaux items ainsi que de les classer. Cette méthode est répétée jusqu’à obtenir un consensus (convergence des opinions des experts) qui sera atteint si obtient des réponses stables entre les 2 tours ou si le nombre de réponses diminue .
Présentation des résultats : les résultats consensuels sont présentés au groupe.
2. Analyse des données
Mesure du consensus . La fondation RAND propose d’utiliser une échelle ordonnée entre 1 et 9, où l’accord le plus faible est 1 et le plus fort est 9. Il va permettre de mesurer le :
Degré d’accord individu : chaque expert note de 1 à 9 s’il est d’accord avec la proposition.
Degré d’accord global : analyse statistique des notes données à l’aide de paramètres de position (moyenne…) et de dispersion (écart-type…).
Interprétation des résultats . Il n’existe pas de méthode consensuelle pour interpréter les résultats. On cherche à obtenir un accord sans avoir de désaccord.
Accord :
Score global compris entre 51% et 80% (souvent >70%)
Score global stable sur plusieurs tours
Désaccord si :
> 30% des scores individuels sont répartis entre 1 et 3
> 30% des scores individuels sont répartis entre 6 et 9
Exemple issu de la revue Exercer :
B. Méthode du groupe nominal
Définition : méthode de consensus reposant sur une série de réunions structurées , visant habituellement à générer des idées selon une démarche inductive et à les ordonner par ordre de priorité .
anglais : nominal group method
Introduite dans les années 70, ce processus pilote permet de préparer des enquêtes en permettant de cerner toutes les dimensions d’un problème à explorer avant de formuler une question de recherche. Cette méthode sert à produire des connaissances ou formaliser un consensus.
Quelques exemples issus de la revue Exercer :
Des enseignants belges et néerlandais de médecine générale ont défini un programme de recherche sur l’intuition du médecin confronté à des problèmes cliniques mal définis (gut feelings).
Identifier les facteurs psychologiques qui influencent la durée de l’allaitement dans des conditions difficiles .
Les obstacles à l’utilisation du dossier médical électronique chez les médecins généralistes .
Evaluation de la variabilité, de la faisabilité et de la pertinence des indicateurs de qualité des soins à domicile .
Développement et validation de recommandation de bonne pratique ou de la prise en charge de l’anaphylaxie en soins primaires .
1. Méthodologie
Sélection des experts :
6 à 10 participants
Critère : « expert » s’entend au sens d’un individu ayant une expérience dans le domaine étudié.
Si plusieurs points de vue existent, il faut constituer des groupes homogènes (ex : médecin spécialiste en médecine générale vs pharmacien d’officine )
Déroulement du groupe nominal issu en partie de Exercer :
Etape
Méthode
Objectif
Remarques
1 : énoncé de la question
L’animateur situe le contexte de la recherche, énonce les règles de fonctionnement du groupe, puis lit la question.
Mise en situation des participants
Un prétest de la question (hors groupe nominal) peut être utile afin de vérifier sa pertinence.
La question doit permettre aux sujets de s’exprimer sur toutes les facettes du problème intéressant le chercheur.
En cas de recherche de consensus, une liste préétablie de propositions issue d’une recherche préliminaire peut être proposée.
2 : réponses à la question
Chaque participant note toutes ses propositions par écrit et en silence.
Production d’un grand nombre de propositions pertinentes.
Les phases 1 et 2 peuvent être réalisées par correspondance.
3 : énoncé des réponses
Tours de table itératifs où chaque participant ne donne qu’une seule proposition à la fois. L’animateur vérifie que chaque proposition ne contient qu’une seule idée.
Visualisation par le groupe des propositions (numérotées) au tableau.
4 : clarification
L’animateur a une vue d’ensemble des propositions et veille à faire séparer distinctement par le groupe les propositions différentes et regrouper les propositions similaires.
Des reformulations sont souvent nécessaires.
Formulation univoque de chaque proposition par le groupe.
Certaines auteurs réalisent une analyse qualitative sur la discussion pour compléter leurs résultats.
5 : vote individuel
Vote écrit et anonyme. Classement dégressif d’un nombre prédéfini de propositions (de 5 à 10).
Hiérarchisation des propositions du groupe.
En cas de recherche de consensus, un 2ème tour de vote peut être réaliser pour renforcer le consensus.
6 : compilation des résultats
Noter et totaliser les points obtenus par chaque proposition au tableau. Noter la fréquence des votes.
Production du résultat. Restitution aux participants.
Durée totale du processus : max 2h
2. Analyse des données
On peut réaliser une analyse quantitative et qualitative des données.
1/ Analyse quantitative :
Pour chaque groupe, on peut établir 2 classements :
Priorité : nombre de points attribués aux propositions
Popularité : nombre de votes exprimés pour chaque proposition
Ces 2 méthodes ne sont pas superposables mais il peut être intéressant de les analyser simultanément (proposition prioritaire mais peu populaire et vice versa).
Les résultats peuvent ensuite être résumés par des paramètre (moyenne, écart-type) permettant de se prononcer sur le degré d’accord :
1 à 3 : rejet du consensus
4 à 6 : ambiguïté
7 à 10 : consensus
2/ Analyse qualitative :
Les propositions brutes peuvent permettre de réaliser une analyse qualitative sans regarder l’ordre de priorité et la popularité.
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