VI. L’analyse en recherche qualitative
Afin de répondre à une question de recherche qualitative, on va utiliser une méthodologie précise.
On peut réaliser une analyse selon plusieurs points de vue :
Le social , on utilisera la théorisation ancrée.
L’individu , on utilisera la phénoménologie interprétative.
La linguistique, on utilisera l’analyse du discours.
La culture , on utilisera l’éthnographie.
Il existe des points communs entre les méthodes d’analyse :
Un processus inductif
Définition : démarche intellectuelle consistant à rechercher des lois générales à partir de l’observation de faits particuliers . Elle procède par inférence probable , c’est-à-dire en déduisant des lois par généralisation des observations. L’induction peut trouver sa place au sein du travail scientifique, à condition de bien mesurer les limites. La stratégie inverse, déductive, consiste à établir des conclusions spécifiques à partir d’une hypothèse générale.
Anglais : induction
Synonyme : induction analytique
La roue de la science adaptée de Wallas
Un processus itératif : ce processus consiste en une répétition d’étapes (problématiser, collecter, analyser, rédiger puis recommencer).
Une dé-contextualisation puis re-contextualisation :
Issu du mot contextualisation : un phénomène qui n’existe pas ne peut prendre sens que s’il est considéré isolément , en dehors de tout contexte. Le sens est toujours confrontation, comparaison, évaluation, mise en perspective. Chaque phénomène doit ainsi être contextualisé pour en faire surgir le sens.
Ainsi, la dé-contextualisation consiste à sortir un extrait de texte du corpus , afin de le rendre sémantiquement indépendant , pour créer des catégories ou des thèmes regroupant tous les extraits traitant d’un sujet identique.
Enfin, la re-contextualisation consiste à mettre en commun les codes et catégories précédemment décontextualisées afin de leur donner une signification, un sens .
Le tableau suivant résume ces 2 principales étapes :
Une compréhension holiste :
Définition : théorie selon laquelle les faits sociaux doivent être expliqués par d’autres faits sociaux dont les individus ne sont que des vecteurs passifs, les comportements individuels étant socialement déterminés : la société́ exerce une contrainte (pouvoir de coercition) sur l’individu qui intériorise (« naturalise ») les principales règles et les respecte. Le libre arbitre individuel n’est pas pour autant totalement éliminé, mais d’un point de vue probabiliste, ce qu’un individu choisit de ne pas faire, un autre le fera, avec un résultat social identique […]. En ce sens, le holisme s’oppose à l’individualisme méthodologique.
Anglais : holism
A. La théorie ancrée (GTM)
Définition : méthode de recherche inductive visant la construction d’une théorie à partir des données empiriques recueillies . Elle comporte un échantillonnage raisonné et l’analyse est fondée sur la méthode de la comparaison constante entre les données d’analyse et les données du terrain .
Synonyme : théorie fondée sur les données, méthode de théorisation ancrée
Anglais : grounded theory method (GTM)
Cette méthode peut sembler contraire à la méthodologie de recherche scientifique : au lieu de partir d’une hypothèse et de réaliser une expérimentation pour la confirmer ou l’infirmer, le chercheur va collecter des données sans a priori, sans hypothèse . A partir de ces données, il va essayer de leur donner du sens : des éléments clefs vont être identifiés grâce à une série de « codes » issu du corpus de texte (ou image, document…). L’ensemble des données est codifié selon une procédure standardisée inductive (induction) et comparative (comparaison des concepts). On observe un aller-retour constant et progressif entre les données recueillies sur le terrain et le processus de théorisation .
A l’aide de la codification, l’outil centrale est « la catégorie ». Elle permet de faire le lien entre la technique qualitative et l’effort de conceptualisation.
NB : la comparaison constante est une méthode d’analyse consistant à examiner de façon systématique et approfondie les variations dans la manifestation et la signification des concepts émergeant des données empiriques recueillies . Anglais : constant, systematic comparison
Si on analyse les mots composant « théorisation ancrée » :
« Théorisation » : il ne s’agit de produite une théorie au sens de modèle pour la compréhension, mais de théorisation au sens du processus pour arriver à une compréhension de nouveaux phénomènes .
Théorie : terme dérivé du grec theorein (« contempler, observer, examiner ») désignant une idée ou une connaissance spéculative basée sur l’observation ou l’expérience, donnant une représentation idéale de la réalité , éloignée des applications pratiques. En sociologie par exemple, on oppose holisme, individualisme méthodologique et interactionnisme symbolique ; en médecine, théories biomédicale et balintienne.
Théorisation désigne « à la fois le processus et le résultat , tout en indiquant que le résultat lui-même n’est pas une fin mais plutôt l’état dans lequel se trouve, à un moment donné, une construction théorique donnée » (Paillé, 1996, p. 184).
« Ancrée » : le processus de théorisation est ancré dans les données recueillis par le travai l sur le terrain . « Le matériau empirique est à la fois le point de départ de la théorisation, le lieu de la vérification des hypothèses émergentes, et le test ultime de la validité de la construction d’ensemble » (Paillé, 1996, p. 185).
Cette analyse qualitative progressive des données peut se décomposer en 6 grandes étapes. Chaque étape permet de conceptualiser de plus en plus les données empiriques , jusqu’à obtenir une conceptualisation des phénomènes observés. En montant dans les étapes et en effectuant des aller-retours répétés entre les données et les catégories, le travail gagne progressivement en abstraction .
Codification
Catégorisation
Mise en relation
Intégration
Modélisation
Théorisation
Une autre façon de décomposer l’analyse est de la séparer en 3 niveaux de codage :
Niveau 1
But : résumer et rassembler
Codage descriptif dit « ouvert » : exploration initiale par lecture fine des textes et étiquetage de concepts qui pourront être complétés ou éliminés ultérieurement.
Niveau 2
But : ré-agencer, identifier les thèmes
Codage thématique dit « axial » : organisation hiérarchique des concepts en catégories plus génériques, approfondissement et enrichissement de ces catégories selon le paradigme de codage et établissement des liens entre catégories par comparaison continue.
Niveau 3
But : expliquer , cadrer
Codage matriciel dit « sélectif » « multiple » : articulation des catégories autour de la catégorie centrale identifiée in fine produisant un modèle théorique du cas.
Théorisation : construction d’un modèle théorique du cas analysé organisant et hiérarchisant les concepts et les catégories autour d’un énoncé central.
1. Codification
Définition : Opération intellectuelle qui consiste à transformer des données brutes (faits observés, paroles recueillies, etc.), en une première formulation signifiante (code), dont le sens reste cependant banal et proche du sens commun.
Anglais : coding
Les données ne sont pas interprétables en l’état :
Les transcripts sont cumulés sans cadre, sans organisation. Un volume de données très important est à disposition, il faut arriver à sélectionner les informations importantes pour en dégager l’essentiel.
Les mots peuvent avoir plusieurs sens en fonction du contexte et ils sont difficiles à manipuler.
Une seule solution, c’est la manifesta… heu non, CODER !
Il faut se poser les questions suivantes :
Qu’est ce qu’il y a ici ?
Qu’est ce que c’est ?
De quoi est-il question ?
On code mot par mot, phrase par phrase dans le sens chronologique (du début à la fin), en mettant une étiquette (désignant une unité de signification), puis on extrait ces codes (codage extractif) et on les organise (codage organisationnel) sans les qualifier ni les conceptualiser (il faut rester très proche du texte). Le principe de base du codage est qu’avec le nom du code, on doit pouvoir retrouver rapidement le concept d’origine.
On peut retrouver plusieurs types de codes :
Codes conceptuels : c’est une catégorie renvoyant à un phénomène, une idée.
Codes-cheville : codes pouvant être regroupés pour constituer une catégorie.
Codes centraux : codes paraissant plus importants, plus pertinents que les autres pouvant donner une piste intéressante.
Codes de réserve : codes qui pourraient être utiles mais dans cette situation sont hors de propos ou non pertinents.
Codes socio-démographiques : codes plus factuels comme l’âge d’une personne.
On va créer un livre de code qui contient :
1 ligne par code accompagné de sa définition, qui doit être claire, univoque et de même signification pour tous.
1 ligne par verbatim rattaché au code.
On retrouver le modèle suivant :
Code 1 : …
Phrase 1 : « … »
Phrase 2 : « … »
Code 2 : …
Phrase 1 : « … »
Phrase 2 : « … »
Phrase 3 : « … »
Phrase 4 : « … »
Etc
2. Catégorisation
Définition : Opération intellectuelle qui permet de déduire un sens plus général d’un ensemble d’éléments bruts du corpus ou d’éléments déjà codifiés, sous la forme de catégories . Il s’agit d’un début de théorisation scientifique, qui met en œuvre le(s) paradigme(s) de référence du chercheur, mais en principe sans grille théorique et conceptuelle a priori.
Anglais : categorization
L’analyse se porte au niveau conceptuel, en identifiant de manière plus riche et plus englobante les phénomènes issus du codage. Sans annuler le codage, elle le place dans une dimension plus explicative et plus large. La catégorisation est un outil bien plus central et riche que le codage primaire. Elle doit être manipulée : décrite, modifiée, divisée, fusionnée, élargie…
La catégorisation se déroule en 2 étapes :
Lister les catégories formées lors de la codification
Tester les catégories sur une transcription : Qu’est ce qui se passe ici ? De quoi s‘agit-il ? Je suis en face de quel phénomène ?
Pour chaque catégorie, il faut passer par 4 étapes réflexives :
Sa définition : à quelle notion, quelle définition la catégorie renvoie-t-elle ?
Ses propriétés (ce qui la compose)
Ses conditions d’existence (Quelles sont les conditions à respecter ou les propriétés qui doivent être présentes pour que le phénomène ait lieu et que la catégorie s’applique ?)
Ses différentes formes et dimensions possibles (intensité, durée…)
Comme vous pouvez l’imaginez, cette étape demande une grande organisation et beaucoup de minutie. Le chercheur va se retrouver devant des centaines de pages de corpus et va devoir analyser chaque code, chaque catégorie sachant que les catégories sont instables et vont changer durant le processus d’analyse.
3. Mise en relation
Définition : phase de l’analyse des données consistant à opérer des rapprochements entre les catégories identifiées . Il peut s’agir de relations de continuité, de causalité, de concomitance, de coexistence, d’imbrication.
Anglais : mapping
On passe d’un plan statique à un plan dynamique. Le chercheur s’engage dans une démarche de construction de forme pyramidale avec des catégories centrales regroupant s’articulant avec des catégories accessoires dans une logique d’élaboration d’un schéma explicatif.
Le début de la mise en relation a déjà débuté durant la catégorisation . La différence est qu’on va systématiser ce processus : tel phénomène est-il en relation avec tel phénomène ? Ce questionnement se retrouve à 2 niveaux :
Le constat au niveau du recueil : l’informateur met-il en relation ses 2 phénomènes dans son discours ?
La recherche au niveau conceptuel : l’analyse permet-elle de mettre en relation ces 2 phénomènes ?
3 approches permettent de mettre en relation ces catégories :
Approche empirique : le chercheur met en relation des catégories à partir d’elles-mêmes et des phénomènes auxquels elles sont associées. En se référant aux catégories et au corpus de texte, on se pose les questions de la mise en relation : ce que j’ai fait ici est-il lié avec ce que j’ai là ? En quoi et comment est-ce lié ?
Approche spéculative : le chercheur fait appel à sa logique et son expérience . On peut se poser les questions suivantes : à quelle catégorie est liée cette catégorie ? quels sont les liens entre ces 2 catégories ? Quelle catégorie suit ou précède cette catégorie ?…
Approche théorique : le chercheur s’appuie sur les données scientifiques existante sur cette question. Si on observe des liens semblables entre notre étude et les données de la littérature, cet argument est en faveur de la généralisabilité des résultats. S’il n’y a pas de lien, cela peut correspondre à une nouvelle piste à explorer pouvant témoigner de l’originalité de l’étude.
4. Intégration
Comme nous l’avions dit, la théorisation ancrée utilise un modèle hypothético-déductif . Contrairement à la recherche quantitative qui part d’une hypothèse, la GTM part des données pour élaborer une hypothèse.
Les premières étapes de l’analyse participent au développement de multiple théories et explications. Le chercheur risque de se perdre dans son analyse, même s’il utilise une carte heuristique. C’est à ce moment qu’il doit réfléchir à la direction que prend son analyse, dans quel cadre s’intègre les données. Il doit dépasser les différents phénomènes observés pour faire émerger un phénomène général .
Questions à se poser :
Quel est le problème principal ?
Quelle était l’idée de départ ?
Face à quel phénomène général suis-je ?
Finalement, sur quoi porte mon étude ?
Bien que cette étape soit majeure, la réflexion ne se traduit pas par un travail écrit lors de l’analyse comme le codage et la catégorisation. Elle est très liée à la catégorisation car c’est en mettant en relation les catégories que la dynamique se crée, que la théorisation s’initie et que l’abstraction commence.
5. Modélisation
Définition (adaptée de Strauss) : la modélisation consiste à reproduire le plus fidèlement possible l’organisation des relations structurelles et fonctionnelles caractérisant un phénomène (un événement, un système, etc) cerné au terme de l’opération d’intégration.
Ainsi, une fois le phénomène général saisi lors de l’intégration, le chercheur poursuit l’analyse vers un degré d’abstraction plus élevé .
Les questions à se poser :
De quel type de phénomène s’agit-il ? Est-il bien caractérisé ? Est-il atypique ou plutôt courant ?
Quels sont les propriétés du phénomène ? Elles sont souvent représentées par les principales catégories de l’analyse.
Quels sont les antécédents du phénomène ? Afin de trouver les conditions de son existence (Quel contexte ? Quels facteurs favorisant ou inhibant ?…)
Quels sont les conséquences du phénomène ? Pour connaître ses répercussions sur son environnement et son évolution . (Quels effets sur les autres phénomènes ? Qu’est ce qui le fait varier ?…)
Quel est le processus mis en jeu autour de ce phénomène ? (Que se passe-t-il entre les antécédents et les conséquences ? Quelles logiques s’affrontent ? Quels sont les contradictions ? Comment évolue-t-il ?…)
Attention, la modélisation n’a pas pour but d’élaborer un modèle généralisant visant à expliquer les autres phénomènes semblables. Elle consiste à réaliser schématiquement les processus mise en jeu lors des étapes précédentes (catégorisation, mise en relation).
6. Théorisation
Lors de cette dernière étape, le chercheur tend à renforcer la théorie émergente et écarter les explications divergentes. La théorisation doit permettre de saisir la complexité du phénomène autant au niveau empirique que conceptuel, tout en gardant à l’esprit qu’elle ne sera jamais achevée.
On dispose de 3 stratégies :
Echantillonnage théorique :
Définition : modalité d’échantillonnage raisonné dans une recherche naturaliste consistant à sélectionner les participants selon un rationnel fondé sur les concepts qui émergent en cours d’étude , de sorte que les questions clés soient correctement représentées.
Anglais : theoretical sampling
Au lieu d’échantillonner des sujet différents (âge, sexe…), on va échantillonner les diverses manifestations d’un phénomène (catégorie, modèle, théorie) mise en évidence durant l’analyse.
Induction analytique : on confronte l’explication du phénomène avec des événements qui contredisent cette explication, appelés « cas négatifs » . Soit les cas négatifs remettent en cause l’explication , soit ils sont considérés comme non pertinents par rapport au phénomène étudié.
Vérification des implications théoriques : afin de déterminer les implications logiques qui découlent de la théorie, on va décomposer la théorie (ou le modèle) en énoncés puis les tester dans le corpus ou lors d’observations ou entretiens pour voir si ces implications se manifestent comme prévu. On peut utiliser la formulation « Si…alors… » pour vérifier si les données sont en accord (ou pas) avec les hypothèses émises.
B. La phénoménologie interprétative (IPA)
Cette méthode, issue de la psychologie clinique des années 90, étudie comment les personnes donnent sens à leurs expériences de vie . Elle tente d’explorer et d’expliquer les données subjectives issue de l’expérience du sujet et en s’intéresse en quoi cette expérience a eu une signification particulière pour ce sujet.
Exemple : l’expérience de syndrome de fatigue chronique, l’impact du refus de la vaccination par des patients chez le médecin généraliste.
Cette méthode est issue de 3 principaux courants :
Phénoménologie :
Définition : cadre théorique visant à explorer comment les individus interprètent le monde et à révéler les explications profondes issues de leur expérience subjective . L’ « essence » des phénomènes peut ainsi être saisie à partir du vécu de l’individu dans son immédiat existentiel.
Elle utilise une approche inductive sans émettre d’hypothèse a priori et tente de comprendre le monde à partir de la perspective du sujet.
Anglais : phenomenology
Herméneutique :
Définition :
Cadre théorique posant que la compréhension peut être obtenue à partir de l’interprétation itérative et empirique d’un texte, d’un objet ou d’une interaction, explicitement conduite dans son contexte culturel et historique .
Interprétation de textes philosophiques et religieux, à la recherche des contenus symboliques dans leur dimension mythique.
Le chercheur tente de donner du sens au participant, qui tente de donner du sens à ce qui lui arrive.
Anglais : hermeneutics
Idiographie :
Elle correspond à l’étude d’un cas singulier , l’IPA veut connaître en détail l’expérience de cette personne, quel sens cette personne particulière donne à ce qui lui arrive. En approfondissant le particulier, l’analyse devient de plus en plus universelle.
A partir d’un cas particulier, le chercheur analyse les similarités et les différences avec les autres cas. Effectuée sur des échantillons restreints, on tente de généraliser des affirmations, en démontrant l’existence et non pas l’incidence .
Les 6 étapes de l’analyse du transcript :
Lire et le relire
Commentaires initiaux
Développement des thèmes émergeants
Recherche de connexion entre les thèmes
Analyse du cas suivant
Recherche de patterns à travers les cas
1. Lire et relire
Le chercheur doit bien s’approprier le texte afin d’avoir un regard global sur le transcript. Il lit, relit, écoute, réécoute afin de pénétrer dans l’univers singulier du cas. Cette phase nécessite un réel engagement psychologique du chercheur .
2. Commentaires initiaux
Cette étape exploratoire analyse le contenu sémantique et l’utilisation du langage.
Très chronophage, cette étape se rapproche de l’analyse d’un texte libre : le chercheur doit analyser de manière détaillée tout le texte en annotant tout ce qui pourrait être intéressant.
Il n’existe pas de règle ni de recommandation, il faut juste garder l’esprit ouvert.
On peut utiliser 3 types de commentaires :
Descriptif : décrit le contenu de ce que le participant a dit, ses propos sont claires, le sens est explicite (commentaire normal).
Linguistique : explore l’utilisation spécifique du langage, de certains mots par le sujet (commentaire en italique ).
Conceptuel (interprétatif) : le chercheur tente d’interpréter, de faire surgir de concepts (commentaire souligné ).
3. Développement des thèmes émergeants
Cette nouvelle étape fait prendre plus de recul au chercheur par rapport au texte. On s’éloigne du détails (transcript) et à l’aide de nos notes et commentaires, on cherche à faire émerger des thématiques . Ces thématiques sont généralement exprimées sous forme par des phrases qui parlent de l’essence psychologique des phénomènes , elles doivent être suffisamment proche du phénomène (vécu du participant) et de l’abstraction (conceptuel )
4. Recherche de connexion entre les thèmes
Une fois les thèmes relevés, le chercheur va chercher une articulation, des points communs.
Cette phase créative implique la réalisation de schémas et diagrammes permettant de représenter la structure entre les thèmes.
Ne pas oublier de lier chaque thème à des extraits issus du transcript original.
L’utilisation de carte heuristique peut être un outil très intéressant
Définition : schéma, supposé refléter le fonctionnement de la pensée, qui permet de représenter visuellement et de suivre le cheminement associatif de la pensée. Cela permet de mettre en lumière les liens qui existent entre u n concept ou une idée, et les informations qui leur sont associées.
Anglais : mind map
5. Analyse du cas suivant
Le nouveau cas sera traité indépendamment du 1 er : nouvel entretien, nouvelle singularité.
Cette contrainte est particulièrement difficile car le chercheur se sera émotionnellement et psychologiquement impliqué dans l’analyse du 1er cas. Il devra retrouver sa neutralité et son objectivité de chercheur afin de ne pas se laisser influencer.
6. Recherche de patterns à travers les cas
Le mot anglais « pattern » est souvent utilisé pour désigner un modèle, une structure, un motif, un type, etc. Il s’agit souvent d’un phénomène ou d’une organisation que l’on peut observer de façon répétée lors de l’étude de certains sujets, auquel il peut conférer des propriétés caractéristiques .
Un pattern constitue donc une solution générique à un type de problème fréquemment rencontré, en décrivant et formalisant les concepts sous-jacents à cette solution.
A travers l’analyse indépendante de plusieurs cas, on va retrouver un modèle commun .
On retrouve l’idée que : « Le plus profond vous allez dans votre analyse, le plus universel elle devient »
C. Analyse du discours (DA)
Définition : méthode d’analyse du langage destinée à rendre compréhensible son rôle dans la construction de l’univers social. L’analyse critique du discours est centrée sur les caractéristiques des textes oraux et écrits dans leur contexte social , par opposition à l’analyse linguistique du discours, qui inclut l’analyse des caractéristiques grammaticales.
Anglais : Discourse analysis
En cours de rédaction…
D. Ethnographie
Définition : compréhension de certains éléments socio-culturels d’un groupe (conceptions, normes, représentations, croyances) à partir du point de vue des membres faisant partie de ce groupe (début XXème).
Cette méthode consiste à décrire et analyser sur le terrain les liens sociaux, les normes et les conduites de groupes souvent restreints et déterminés.
En cours de rédaction…
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