III. Elaboration de l’échantillon/population
Exercices
Echantillonnage : processus de sélection d’objets ou d’individus à étudier, à partir d’une population plus importante. Le sous-ensemble d’objets ou d’individus constitue l’échantillon .
Echantillon : sous-ensemble de la population étudiée . Le choix des unités qui constituent le sous-ensemble peut être effectué par différentes méthodes (échantillonnage). On utilise des échantillons parce qu’une étude approfondie de toute la population serait impossible, trop longue et trop chère pour le niveau de précision exigé .
Ainsi, à partir d’une population source, on va sélectionner un échantillon de sujets respectant différents critères.
A. Le principe de la fluctuation d’échantillonnage
Si l’on effectue plusieurs échantillonnages de même taille sur une même population, on obtiendra en général des fréquences légèrement différentes pour un caractère donné. Ce phénomène s’appelle fluctuation d’échantillonnage . Ces valeurs se situent dans un intervalle appelé Intervalle de fluctuation , souvent fixé à 95%.
Ces fluctuations diminuent lorsque la taille de l’échantillon augmente.
Pour les matheux, cet intervalle est déterminé grâce au théorème central limite qui établit la convergence en loi de la somme d’une suite de variables aléatoires vers la loi normale. Intuitivement, ce résultat affirme que toute somme de variables aléatoires indépendantes et identiquement distribuées tend vers une variable aléatoire gaussienne.
Le test statistique permet de déterminer si les résultats observés sont attribuables aux seules fluctuations d’échantillonnage ou s’ils sont réels .
Ex : Quand on entend comme résultat d’un sondage :
Il y a actuellement 52 % de gens qui voteraient pour M. X au deuxième tour d’une élection (sondage effectué auprès de 948 personnes),
il faut comprendre : Il y a 95 % de chance pour que l’intervalle [49 % ; 55 %] contienne le pourcentage de gens prêts à voter pour M. X au deuxième tour de cette élection. Pour un sondage auprès de 1000 personnes, l’intervalle est déterminé à plus ou moins 3 points.
B. Modalités de sélection des sujets
Exercices
Pour effectuer l’échantillonnage, on va se poser quelques questions sur les caractéristiques de la population qu’on cherche à sélectionner :
Caractéristiques :
Qui : malade, sains, volontaire…
Où :
Type de structure : Ville/hôpital/CHU
Nombre de centres : mono/multicentrique
Pays, système de santé.
Quand : date de début et de fin
Comment : liste électorale, publicité…
Méthode d’échantillonnage
Qualité du sélectionneur : personnel médical, paramédical, laboratoire…
Critères d’inclusion : ensemble de critères qui définissent de façon précise les caractéristiques des sujets qui peuvent entrer dans une étude :
Sociodémographique : âge, sexe, ethnie…
Géographique : origine, habitat, hospitalisation…
Pathologie : stade, forme clinique, traitement…
Comorbidité, FdR…
Critères d’exclusion (ou de non inclusion) : ensemble des critères faisant que les sujets ne peuvent pas être inclus dans une étude ou un essai. Ils appartiennent à 3 classes :
Raison de prudence : prévention d’événements indésirables
Contre indication à l’intervention. Ex : opération chirurgicale.
Contre indication à une exploration nécessaire au critère de jugement. Ex : biopsie, fibroscopie.
Difficulté potentielle d’évaluation des critères de jugement à cause d’un facteur de confusion :
Traitement interférant. Ex : AVK
Maladie intercurrente. Ex : insuffisance rénale aiguë
Difficulté potentielle de suivi augmentant le risque de perdus de vue
Pathologie associée prioritaire sur les soins. Ex : cancer vs pathologie bénigne .
Motivation insuffisante
Mauvais observance ou risque d’abandon. Ex : toxicomanie, trouble psychiatrique
C. Méthodes d’échantillonnage
Aléatoire (probabiliste) :
Simple (élémentaire) : on tire au sort, successivement, « n » sujets à partir de la base d’un sondage. Chaque sujet a la même chance d’être inclus dans l’échantillon.
Méthode : on numérote tous les sujets, on utilise une table de nombres aléatoire (informatique ou pas), on sélectionne le sujet correspondant au nombre tiré.
Avantage : simple, méthode de référence, échantillon représentatif car probabilité de sélection identique.
Inconvénient : risque de biais car échantillonnage « sans remise ». Plus on tire de sujets, moins il en restera dans la base donc plus la probabilité d’être tiré au sort augmente. Ce biais devient négligeable sur une grande population ou si on fait une remise.
Ex : application avec Excel
Première colonne : identifie avec un nombre chaque individu de la liste de référence.
Deuxième colonne : =alea()
Recopier les deux colonnes en valeur à la même place.
Trier les deux colonnes en fonction de l’ordre croissant (ou décroissant) de la deuxième colonne.
Retenir les n premiers individus dans la colonne 1
Systématique (par intervalle): il existe un intervalle, un écart entre chaque sujet (classement de la population dans un ordre non numérique).
Méthode :
Numéroter de 1 à N les sujets dans la base de sondage (N : taille totale de la population). Ex : Vous avez N = 400 sujets dans votre base.
Déterminer l’intervalle d’échantillonnage K (pas de sondage) en divisant le nombre de sujets (N) par la taille de l’échantillon. Ex : On choisit 100 sujets sur la base de 400 donc K = 400/100 = 4.
Choisir le 1er sujet à inclure dans l’échantillon (nombre entre 1 et K). Ex : on choisit d’inclure à partir du 2ème sujet, ce sera le 1er sujet de notre échantillon.
On inclus chaque Kème sujet après le premier sujet inclus. Ex : On a choisi le 2ème puis le 6ème , puis 10ème …
Avantage :
Facile à sélectionner : 1 seul individu est choisi au hasard (le 1er )
Précis : répartition de l’échantillon sur l’ensemble de la population
Inconvénient : risque de biais si les sujets sont répartis dans un ordre non aléatoire dans la population ou si une caractéristique revient à la même périodicité.
Ex : les noms à particule (« de ») correspondent à une certaine classe sociale.
Stratifiée : on divise la population en groupes homogènes (strates), qui sont mutuellement exclusifs, puis on sélectionne à partir de chaque strate des échantillons indépendants. On peut utiliser n’importe quelle méthode d’échantillonnage pour sélectionner l’échantillon dans chaque strate.
Avantage :
Il nous assure d’obtenir une taille d’échantillon suffisante pour réaliser des analyses en sous-groupe dans chaque strate.
Peu probable de choisir un échantillon inadapté car on s’assure de la présence proportionnelle des sous-groupes de la population.
Inconvénient :
Il faut connaître la liste de la population
Il faut connaître comment la population se répartit dans certaines strates.
Ex : On sépare la population en fonction du BMI : normal, surpoids, obésité. On va ensuite sélectionner nos échantillons dans chaque strate.
En grappe : on divise la population en sous-groupes (ou grappes), puis on sélectionne aléatoirement des groupes de sujets plutôt que les sujets eux-mêmes.
Avantage :
Limite l’échantillon à des groupes permettant de diminuer les coûts (déplacement, suivi, supervision).
Pas besoin de liste globale de la population, la liste des groupes suffit.
Inconvénient :
Perte de précision des résultats car les sujets ont tendance à se ressembler dans un sous-groupe.
Pas de contrôle de la taille finale de l’échantillon.
A plusieurs degrés (partitionné) : ressemble à l’échantillonnage par grappe sauf qu’ici on prélève un échantillon à partir de la grappe. On a au moins 2 degrés car le 1er correspond à la grappe et le 2ème à la sous unité.
Avantage :
Réduit les coûts et pas besoin de disposer de la liste complète.
Permet de contrôler la taille de l’échantillon, notamment par stratification.
Inconvénient : perte de précision.
Ex : Niveau 1 : ville, niveau 2 : établissement de santé, niveau 3 : médecin.
Empirique (non probabiliste) :
Cette méthode ne nécessite pas de base de sondage. Peu fiable, elle n’inclut pas le concept de probabilité égale d’être inclus parmi les sujets de la population.
Avantage :
Pas besoin de base de sondage
Facile et peu onéreuse
Inconvénient :
Beaucoup de non réponse (perte de représentativité)
Nombreux biais
Intérêt : pour les études exploratoires, lorsqu’on ne peut pas utiliser de méthode probabiliste.
Méthodes :
A l’aveuglette (ou de commodité). Ex : dégustation de vin.
Volontaire . Ex : expérience médicale.
Au jugé . Sélection des sujets en fonction de l’idée qu’on se fait de la population, afin d’obtenir des groupes ciblés.
Par quotas (dirigé, par choix raisonné). Surtout utilisé pour les enquêtes d’opinion ou les études de marché, les enquêteurs inclus les sujets en s’assurant d’avoir respecté certains quotas. Ex : âge, sexe, niveau socio-économique…
Cas particulier : l’appariement dans les études cas-témoins
Afin de limiter, a priori, de potentiels facteurs de confusion, on peut apparier les cas et les témoins :
Définition : méthode consistant à sélectionner des paires de sujet (cas + témoin) qui sont comparables sur certains facteurs (souvent l’âge et le sexe).
Méthode :
Equilibré : 1 cas pour 1 témoin, le plus souvent
Déséquilibré : 1 cas pour 2…4 témoins
Intérêt :
Diminue le nombre de potentiels facteurs de confusions
Si déséquilibré : augmente la puissance en diminuant la fluctuation d’échantillonnage
Limite :
Le nombre de facteurs d’appariement est limité
Le nombre de témoins par cas est limité (à 3 voir 4) car le gain de puissance perd son intérêt au-delà.
D. Déterminer la taille de l’échantillon : le NSN
Avant d’inclure les sujets dans l’étude, il faut estimer le nombre de sujets nécessaires (NSN) pour avoir la puissance (déterminée a priori) suffisante afin de répondre à l’objectif de l’étude (et rejeter l’hypothèse nulle H0). On veut savoir combien de sujets doivent être inclus dans chaque bras.
Si vous ne comprenez rien à tous ces symboles et ces notions statistiques, reportez vous au chapitre sur les tests statistiques .
1. Quelles données sont nécessaires ?
Pouvoir séparateur entre 2 groupe : la puissance P
La puissance d’un test statistique correspond à la capacité à montrer un effet lorsqu’il existe.
Généralement ≥ 80 %
Pour un effet donné :
C’est la différence minimale d’intérêt entre les 2 groupes (critère de jugement principal). Son choix est important, difficile et dépendant du problème étudié. C’est souvent une caractéristique clinique ou biologique. Elle est donnée par la littérature ou une étude préliminaire .
Cet effet est différent en fonction du type d’étude :
Pour une comparaison de moyennes , on a besoin de :
La différence Δ entre les moyennes des 2 groupes
La variance estimée s2 : c’est la variabilité de l’ensemble du critère de jugement principal
Pour une comparaison de pourcentages :
Pourcentages de succès dans chaque groupe étudié.
Pour une étude cas témoin ou en cross-over :
L’Odds-Ration minimal détectable
La proportion attendue de témoins exposés
Le nombre de témoins par cas
Avec un risque d’erreur fixé α et la nature du test
Le risque α est le risque de conclure à une différence alors qu’il n’y en a pas
La nature du test correspond à son caractère unilatéral ou bilatéral
NB : le nombre de sujet final tient aussi compte du nombre de perdus de vue attendu , max 5-10%
2. Comment le calculer ?
Le plus simple est de passer par BiostatTGV ou par un logiciel statistique .
Le site internet permet de calculer le NSN gratuitement pour comparer :
2 moyennes
2 proportions
les études cas-témoins
les études en cross over
Le calcul du NSN dépend de 2 formules en fonction de ce qu’on compare 2 moyennes ou 2 pourcentages .
Calcul du NSN pour comparer de 2 variables qualitatives (pourcentage) ou 2 quantitatives (moyenne)
Pour déterminer z :
Si α = 5 % ; zα/2 = 1.96 (loi Normale) si bilatéral, sinon zα en unilatéral
Si β = 20 % ; = -0.842 (loi Normale)
Ces valeurs sont valables à condition que la variable suive une distribution normale ou que le nombre de sujet soit > 30 (approximation d’une loi normale)
Ainsi le NSN augmente si :
α et β sont petit
Δ est grand
σ ou s2 est grand
Abréviation
Synonyme
Valeur par défaut (%)
Définition
Risque alpha
α
Risque de 1ère espèce
5
Probabilité de conclure à une différence alors qu’il n’y en a pas
Risque Beta
β
Risque de 2ème espèce
5 – 20
Probabilité de ne pas conclure à une différence alors qu’il y en a
Puissance
P
P = 1 – β
= [80 – 95 %]
Probabilité à conclure à une différence alors qu’il y en a
IV. Les critères de jugement
Définition : variable observée et/ou mesurée dont l’interprétation va permettre de répondre à la question posée dans l’objectif .
Il peut être primaire ou secondaire, en fonction s’il permet de répondre à l’objectif principal ou aux objectifs secondaires
En anglais : primary/secondary endpoint, main endpoint
Critères de qualité
Simple
Précis
Objectif
Consensuel
Validé de préférence par des publications (définitions internationales)
Reproductible
Pertinent cliniquement
Adapté à la question donnée
Unique
Défini a priori dans le protocole et ne changeant pas au cours de l’étude
Modalités de mesure :
par du personnel qualifié et formé
en double aveugle (par 2 évaluateurs indépendants)
centralisée
validé par un comité d’adjudication indépendant (comité d’experts cliniques dans le domaine médical concerné dont le but est d’harmoniser et de standardiser l’évaluation des critères de jugement)
à un moment d’intérêt précis
Standardisé
Pertinence
Les critères de jugement doivent être pertinent cliniquement.
Les principaux critères pertinents sont :
Mortalité
Evènement clinique (AVC, IDM, infection) ou morbidité
Douleur
Qualité de vie
Incapacité ou handicap
On l’oppose aux critères intermédiaires :
Définition : critère reflétant d’un mécanisme biologique, radiologique, physiopathologique ou pharmacologique. Il n’est pas directement lié à l’objectif du traitement.
Synonyme : critère de substitution
Anglais : surrogate
Subjectivité et objectivité du CdJ
Un critère de jugement est dit objectif si son évaluation est incontestable, et si son interprétation sera identique en fonction de la personne qui l’évalue.
Il s’agit principalement de la mortalité toute cause et de critères biologiques .
Différents critères
Critère clinique : permet le reflet direct de l’objectif du traitement étudié
Critère intermédiaire :
Inconvénient :
Moins pertinent (Ex : HbA1c pour complications du diabète…)
Pas toujours corrélés avec la mortalité ou l’événement clinique (ex : troponine élevée dans l’IDM mais aussi dans la myocardite)
Intérêt :
Utilisé à la place d’un critère clinique lorsque ce dernier n’est pas utilisable .
Conditions d’utilisation :
Relation avec le CdJP établie et indiscutable
Fiable, reproductible
Sensible, spécifique
Défini a priori
Critère composite :
Déf : combinaison de plusieurs critères en un seul.
Avantages :
A u g m e n t e le nombre d’évènements et donc la puissance statistique
Correspond à la situation clinique réelle (ex: IDM, revascularisation…)
Permet de prendre en compte l’ensemble des événements importants (notamment lorsqu’on évalue le bénéfice-risque)
Permet de regrouper des facteurs d’efficacité et de tolérance
Donne une vision globale
Inconvénients
Regroupe des évènements de gravité différente ( ex: TVP et EP), rendant difficile l’interprétation.
S o u s – es t i m e la gravité d’une suite d’évènement (ex: TVP puis EP)
Difficile à interpréter , si le résultat est significatif sur le critère composite, cela ne signifie pas que chaque sous-critère est significatif.
Vérifier qu’il est cliniquement pertinent
Regarder si la gravité des sous-critères est globalement comparable
S i « décès » inclus, il faut des complications graves (mais ça reste valable)
Critère « décès toute cause » :
Déf : sous-type de critère composite incluant les décès, peu importe l’étiologie.
Avantages : toujours préférable à décès « spécifique » car
évite le biais de classement car difficulté à diagnostiquer une cause précise de décès
prend en compte les décès non spécifiques mais liés au traitement (ex: accident de la voie publique à cause de la somnolence )
n e diminue pas la probabilité de montrer une différence car randomisation
Critère « dur »
Gold standard :
Déf : test diagnostique qu’on utilise comme référence (même si aucun test n’est parfait). Dans une démarche diagnostique, c’est l’examen que l’on considère comme donnant la meilleure certitude diagnostique.
Critères de qualité :
méthode de référence en l’absence d’examen diagnostic de référence .
Il est évalué en aveugle du résultat du test étudié et vice versa
Il n’inclut pas le test étudié . Le test ne doit pas influencer le gold standard.
En recherche qualitative
En cours de rédaction…
Administratif :
En cours de rédaction…
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