{"id":233,"date":"2016-04-08T16:38:46","date_gmt":"2016-04-08T15:38:46","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/lepcam.fr\/?page_id=233"},"modified":"2019-10-03T09:02:54","modified_gmt":"2019-10-03T08:02:54","slug":"test","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/","title":{"rendered":"Analyse des r\u00e9sultats (2)"},"content":{"rendered":"<hr \/>\n<h1>II. Les bases des tests statistiques<\/h1>\n<p>Les tests d\u2019hypoth\u00e8se permettent d\u2019aider \u00e0 la validation d\u2019hypoth\u00e8ses.<\/p>\n<p>Ils permettent de r\u00e9duire la subjectivit\u00e9, en rendant les choix plus objectifs et plus transparent pour pouvoir les critiquer.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Si vous voulez directement r\u00e9aliser vos tests statistiques de mani\u00e8re facile, aller directement sur le site <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pvalue.io\/\">pvalue.io<\/a> qui est tr\u00e8s intuitif et gratuit !<\/p>\n<p>L\u2019exemple caract\u00e9ristique des tests statistiques est rencontr\u00e9e lors des essais th\u00e9rapeutiques.<\/p>\n<p><em>Imaginons une \u00e9tude dans laquelle on cherche \u00e0 \u00e9valuer l\u2019efficacit\u00e9 de la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie dans la lombalgie aigu\u00eb commune. On va r\u00e9partir 200 sujets al\u00e9atoirement dans 2 groupes\u00a0: le groupe A qui b\u00e9n\u00e9ficie d\u2019une prise en charge par un kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapeute et le groupe B qui n\u2019aura pas de prise en charge par un kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapeute.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>Apr\u00e8s 2 semaines, on \u00e9value le taux de gu\u00e9rison.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>On pose l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se que le taux de gu\u00e9rison sera plus \u00e9lev\u00e9 dans le groupe A que le groupe B. <\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>On va supposer 4 situations distinctes donnant des r\u00e9sultats diff\u00e9rents\u00a0:<\/em><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>1<sup>er<\/sup> cas\u00a0: 80 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans chaque groupe. <\/em>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Il n\u2019y a pas de diff\u00e9rence d\u2019efficacit\u00e9.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><em>2<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> cas\u00a0: 79 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe B et 81 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe A. <\/em>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Il existe une petite diff\u00e9rence en faveur de la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie. Mais cette diff\u00e9rence est-elle significative\u00a0? Cette diff\u00e9rence est-elle due au hasard\u00a0? <\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><em>3<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> cas\u00a0: 90 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe A et seulement 5 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe B. <\/em>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Il semble que la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie soit efficace, difficile d\u2019affirmer que cette diff\u00e9rence est due seulement au hasard tellement l\u2019\u00e9cart est important.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><em>4<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> cas\u00a0: 83 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe A et 77 patients ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe B. <\/em>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Comment l\u2019interpr\u00e9ter\u00a0? Cette diff\u00e9rence est-elle significative\u00a0? Comment le savoir objectivement\u00a0? <\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Le principe des tests statistiques revient \u00e0 syst\u00e9matiser rapidement le raisonnement qu\u2019on a eu dans cet exemple. Dans une d\u00e9marche de raisonnement scientifique, on va passer par plusieurs \u00e9tapes.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>D\u2019un point de vue\u00a0<strong>pratique<\/strong>, les principales \u00e9tapes sont\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Construire les <strong>hypoth\u00e8ses H0 et H1<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>D\u00e9terminer les <strong>risques d\u2019erreur alpha, beta<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>D\u00e9terminer la situation du test :<strong> unilat\u00e9ral ou bilat\u00e9ral<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Choisir le test adapt\u00e9\u00a0<\/strong>: chaque test a ses conditions d\u2019application<\/li>\n<li><strong>Calculer le \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb<\/strong> gr\u00e2ce au test et <strong>l\u2019interpr\u00e9ter<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>D\u2019un point de vue <strong>math\u00e9matique<\/strong>, les principales \u00e9tapes sont\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Formuler une hypoth\u00e8se.\n<ul>\n<li><em>Hypoth\u00e8se nulle H0, la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est inefficace.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Hypoth\u00e8se alternative, la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est efficace ou d\u00e9l\u00e9t\u00e8re.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li>En d\u00e9duire ce qu\u2019on devrait observer si l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se \u00e9tait vraie.\n<ul>\n<li><em>Si H0 est vraie, alors la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est inefficace, le taux de gu\u00e9rison sera identique dans les 2 groupes.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Si H1 est vraie, alors la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est efficace ou d\u00e9l\u00e9t\u00e8re, le taux de gu\u00e9rison sera diff\u00e9rent entre les 2 groupes.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ol start=\"3\">\n<li>V\u00e9rifier si les observations sont conformes ou contradictoire \u00e0 ce que l\u2019on attend.\n<ul>\n<li><em>On calcul le taux de gu\u00e9rison dans chaque groupe.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ol start=\"4\">\n<li>On en conclue si on accepte ou rejette l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se initiale.\n<ul>\n<li><em>On accepte ou rejette H0, on admet ou r\u00e9fute que la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est inefficace.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2 id=\"hypothese\">A. Construire l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se nulle et l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se alternative<\/h2>\n<p>Le test statistique est utile lorsqu\u2019il faut trancher entre 2 hypoth\u00e8ses\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>H<sub>0\u00a0<\/sub>: hypoth\u00e8se nulle, elle correspond \u00e0 une situation de <em>statu quo<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li>H<sub>1\u00a0<\/sub>: hypoth\u00e8se alternative, elle correspond \u00e0 l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se qu\u2019on veut d\u00e9montrer.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><em>En reprenant notre exemple,<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>H<sub>0<\/sub>\u00a0: p<sub>A<\/sub> = p<sub>B<\/sub> , le taux de gu\u00e9rison est identique dans les 2 groupes, qu\u2019ils aient b\u00e9n\u00e9fici\u00e9 de la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie ou pas.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>H<sub>1<\/sub>\u00a0: p<sub>A<\/sub> <\/em><em>\u2260<\/em><em> p<sub>B<\/sub> , le taux de gu\u00e9rison sera diff\u00e9rent entre les 2 groupes , on ne pr\u00e9suppose pas de l\u2019efficacit\u00e9 ou de la nocivit\u00e9 de la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Lorsque l\u2019on va d\u00e9cider si H0 est vraie ou H0 est fausse, on peut faire\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>La bonne d\u00e9cision\u00a0<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li>On suppose qu\u2019H0 est fausse et en r\u00e9alit\u00e9 H0 est fausse\u00a0: c\u2019est le la <strong>puissance<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>On suppose qu\u2019H0 est vraie et en r\u00e9alit\u00e9 H0 est vraie.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>La mauvaise<\/strong> <strong>d\u00e9cision\u00a0<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li>On suppose qu\u2019H0 est fausse alors qu\u2019en r\u00e9alit\u00e9 H0 est vraie\u00a0: c\u2019est le <strong>risque \u03b1<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>On suppose qu\u2019H0 est vraie alors qu\u2019en r\u00e9alit\u00e9 H0 est fausse\u00a0: c\u2019est le <strong>risque \u03b2<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"risque\">B. D\u00e9terminer les risques d\u2019erreur<\/h2>\n<p>Apr\u00e8s avoir pos\u00e9 nos hypoth\u00e8ses, on va accepter un risque d\u2019erreur. En statistique, on n\u2019est jamais s\u00fbr \u00e0 100%, on accepte toujours un risque de se tromper.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"73\"><\/td>\n<td width=\"68\">Abr\u00e9viation<\/td>\n<td width=\"108\">Synonyme<\/td>\n<td width=\"87\">Valeur par d\u00e9faut (%)<\/td>\n<td width=\"193\">D\u00e9finition<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"73\">Risque alpha<\/td>\n<td width=\"68\">\u03b1<\/td>\n<td width=\"108\">Risque de 1\u00e8re esp\u00e8ce<\/td>\n<td width=\"87\">5<\/td>\n<td width=\"193\">Probabilit\u00e9 de conclure \u00e0 une diff\u00e9rence alors qu\u2019il n\u2019y en a pas<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"73\">Risque Beta<\/td>\n<td width=\"68\">\u03b2<\/td>\n<td width=\"108\">Risque de 2\u00e8me esp\u00e8ce<\/td>\n<td width=\"87\">5 &#8211; 20<\/td>\n<td width=\"193\">Probabilit\u00e9 de ne pas conclure \u00e0 une diff\u00e9rence alors qu\u2019il y en a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"73\">Puissance<\/td>\n<td width=\"68\">P<\/td>\n<td width=\"108\"><\/td>\n<td width=\"87\">P = 1 \u2013 \u03b2<\/p>\n<p>= [80 \u2013 95 %]<\/td>\n<td width=\"193\">Probabilit\u00e9 \u00e0 conclure \u00e0 une diff\u00e9rence alors qu\u2019il y en a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>[toggle title=&rsquo;Cliquez ici pour voir l&rsquo;illustration\u00a0humoristique&rsquo;]<\/p>\n<p><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"1622\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/cke7uznxeaelqju\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/Cke7UznXEAELQJu.jpg?fit=564%2C428&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"564,428\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;1&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"risque erreur\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/Cke7UznXEAELQJu.jpg?fit=564%2C428&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1622 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/Cke7UznXEAELQJu-300x228.jpg?resize=300%2C228&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"risque erreur\" width=\"300\" height=\"228\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/Cke7UznXEAELQJu.jpg?resize=300%2C228&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/Cke7UznXEAELQJu.jpg?w=564&amp;ssl=1 564w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>[\/toggle]<\/p>\n<h3>1. Risque de 1\u00e8re esp\u00e8ce<\/h3>\n<p>Ce risque alpha est fix\u00e9 a priori lorsqu\u2019on construit les tests statistiques. Par convention, on le fixe \u00e0 5% bien que cette valeur arbitraire soit discutable.<\/p>\n<p>Ainsi, on a 5% de risque de rejeter H0 <strong>si elle<\/strong> <strong>est vraie. <\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: on suppose que la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est efficace alors qu\u2019elle ne l\u2019est pas. Cette erreur peut avoir des cons\u00e9quences importantes.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Attention (subtilit\u00e9)\u00a0:<\/strong> le risque alpha ne correspond <strong>pas<\/strong> au risque de rejeter H0 <strong>alors qu\u2019elle \u00e9tait vraie<\/strong>, ni le risque de rejeter H0 <strong>par erreur<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>En effet, on ne peut <strong>pas<\/strong> conna\u00eetre le <strong>v\u00e9ritable<\/strong> risque de rejeter H0 par erreur parce qu\u2019il <strong>d\u00e9pend de la probabilit\u00e9 que H0 soit vraie (qui est inconnu).<\/strong> Heureusement, cette erreur d\u2019interpr\u00e9tation n\u2019a pas de cons\u00e9quence\u00a0: la probabilit\u00e9 que H0 soit vraie est \u2264 1, donc le risque de rejeter par erreur est &lt; au risque alpha.<\/p>\n<h3>2. Risque de 2\u00e8me esp\u00e8ce<\/h3>\n<p>On ne veut rejeter H0 que si H0 est fausse. Aussi pr\u00e9vu a priori, ce risque correspond au risque de ne pas rejeter H0 <strong>si H0 est fausse<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: on suppose que la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie n\u2019est pas efficace alors qu\u2019elle l\u2019est. C\u2019est moindre grave que le risque alpha car au pire des cas on dit que ce n\u2019est pas efficace.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3>3. Puissance<\/h3>\n<p>La puissance est la probabilit\u00e9 de rejeter H0 <strong>si elle est fausse<\/strong>, elle correspond \u00e0 (1 \u2013 \u03b2). En gros, c\u2019est la probabilit\u00e9 de voir qu\u2019il y a une diff\u00e9rence quand il y a effectivement une diff\u00e9rence.<\/p>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: c\u2019est la probabilit\u00e9 de dire que la kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie est efficace alors qu\u2019elle est vraiment efficace.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Autant vous dire que <strong>c\u2019est la chose la plus importante !<\/strong> Il va essayer par 3 principaux moyens d\u2019obtenir la puissance la plus \u00e9lev\u00e9e possible\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Augmenter l\u2019effectif\u00a0<\/strong>: en augmentant la taille de l\u2019\u00e9chantillon, on augmente la pr\u00e9cision de nos r\u00e9sultats (en diminuant l\u2019intervalle de fluctuation).\n<ul>\n<li><em>Ex\u00a0: au lieu de s\u00e9lectionner 100 sujets dans chaque groupe, on en s\u00e9lectionne 1000.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Limiter la variance\u00a0<\/strong>: on souhaite que la variance des facteurs non \u00e9tudi\u00e9s soit proche chez les diff\u00e9rents sujets, on souhaite que les sujets se ressemblent sauf sur les facteurs \u00e9tudi\u00e9s.\n<ul>\n<li><em>Ex\u00a0: les sujets sont r\u00e9partis de mani\u00e8re al\u00e9atoire dans les 2 groupes, garantissant une r\u00e9partition \u00e9quilibr\u00e9e des facteurs non \u00e9tudi\u00e9s (\u00e2ge, sexe, poids\u2026) dans les 2 groupes.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Maximiser la chance d\u2019obtenir une diff\u00e9rence\u00a0<\/strong>: on va \u00e9tudier le facteur dans les conditions optimales pour obtenir l\u2019effet le plus important possible.\n<ul>\n<li><em>Ex\u00a0: les sujets du groupe intervention b\u00e9n\u00e9ficieront d\u2019une prise en charge intensive de kin\u00e9sith\u00e9rapie.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"unilat\">C. D\u00e9terminer la situation du test : unilat\u00e9ral ou bilat\u00e9ral<\/h2>\n<p>Si H0 correspond \u00e0 une \u00e9galit\u00e9, H1 ne correspond pas forc\u00e9ment \u00e0 une in\u00e9galit\u00e9 de type pA \u2260 pB.<\/p>\n<p>pA \u2260 pB signifie que le traitement A est sup\u00e9rieur au traitement B ou le traitement B est sup\u00e9rieur au traitement A<\/p>\n<p>Dans certains cas, il n\u2019y a pas d\u2019int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e0 montrer que A &lt; B ou A &gt; B, on veut juste montrer que A &gt; B.<\/p>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: un laboratoire veut mettre sur le march\u00e9 un nouveau m\u00e9dicament B pour traiter la lombalgie chronique. Le m\u00e9dicament de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence A est efficace mais il est cher et entra\u00eene de nombreux effets secondaires diminuant son observance. Le laboratoire n\u2019a pas d\u2019int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e0 montrer que le m\u00e9dicament B est plus efficace que A car il sait qu\u2019il est d\u00e9j\u00e0 tr\u00e8s efficace. Il veut monter que son nouveau m\u00e9dicament est au moins aussi efficace mais qu\u2019il a l\u2019avantage de co\u00fbter moins cher et d\u2019avoir moins d\u2019effets secondaires. <\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>On veut \u00e9tudier le taux de gu\u00e9rison \u00e0 1 mois. On pose\u00a0:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>H0\u00a0: pA = pB , les 2 traitements ont la m\u00eame efficacit\u00e9.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>H1\u00a0: pA &lt; pB , le traitement de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence A est inf\u00e9rieur au nouveau traitement B.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Quel int\u00e9r\u00eat\u00a0?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>La nouvelle hypoth\u00e8se alternative H1\u00a0: pA &lt; pB (unilat\u00e9rale) \u00e9tant incluse dans l\u2019ancienne H1\u00a0: pA \u2260 pB (pA &lt; pB ou pA &gt; pB). On a moins de risque de se tromper et d\u2019accepter H1 alors que H0 est vraie, ayant pour cons\u00e9quence de diminuer \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb (divis\u00e9 par 2).<\/p>\n<p>En diminuant le \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb, cela <strong>permet d\u2019augmenter la puissance de l\u2019\u00e9tude pour un m\u00eame nombre de sujets\u00a0!<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>En conclusion, on distingue 2 type de tests\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Test unilat\u00e9ral\u00a0<\/strong>: test statistique pour lequel on prend comme <strong>hypoth\u00e8se alternative<\/strong> l&rsquo;existence d&rsquo;une <strong>diff\u00e9rence<\/strong> dont le <strong>sens est connu.<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>H1\u00a0: p<sub>A<\/sub> &lt; pB<\/li>\n<li>Ou H1\u00a0: pA &gt; pB<\/li>\n<li><strong>Augmente la puissance<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Test bilat\u00e9rale\u00a0<\/strong>: test statistique pour lequel on prend, comme hypoth\u00e8se alternative, l&rsquo;existence d&rsquo;une diff\u00e9rence, <strong>dans un sens ou l&rsquo;autre<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>pA \u2260 pB (pA &lt; pB ou pA &gt; pB).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><strong>Comment le retrouver dans un article\u00a0?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>La caract\u00e8re unilat\u00e9ral ou bilat\u00e9ral d\u2019un test doit toujours \u00eatre d\u00e9fini a priori dans la partie \u00ab\u00a0analyse statistique\u00a0\u00bb et doit \u00eatre justifi\u00e9.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Attention<\/strong>, erreur fr\u00e9quente\u00a0: dans une \u00e9tude de non inf\u00e9riorit\u00e9 utilisant un test unilat\u00e9ral, un r\u00e9sultat non significatif ne permet pas d\u2019affirmer qu\u2019il n\u2019y a pas de diff\u00e9rence entre les 2 traitements et qu\u2019ils sont donc \u00e9quivalents. Il permet juste de dire que l\u2019\u00e9tude ne permet pas de mettre en \u00e9vidence une sup\u00e9riorit\u00e9 du nouveau traitement par rapport au traitement de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence.<\/p>\n<div class=\"tiled-gallery type-rectangular tiled-gallery-unresized\" data-original-width=\"629\" data-carousel-extra='{&quot;blog_id&quot;:1,&quot;permalink&quot;:&quot;https:\\\/\\\/lepcam.fr\\\/index.php\\\/les-etapes\\\/test\\\/&quot;,&quot;likes_blog_id&quot;:107895041}' itemscope itemtype=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/ImageGallery\" > <div class=\"gallery-row\" style=\"width: 629px; height: 187px;\" data-original-width=\"629\" data-original-height=\"187\" > <div class=\"gallery-group images-1\" style=\"width: 312px; height: 187px;\" data-original-width=\"312\" data-original-height=\"187\" > <div class=\"tiled-gallery-item tiled-gallery-item-large\" itemprop=\"associatedMedia\" itemscope itemtype=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/test-bilat\/\" border=\"0\" itemprop=\"url\"> <meta itemprop=\"width\" content=\"308\"> <meta itemprop=\"height\" content=\"183\"> <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" data-attachment-id=\"939\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-bilat-e1462176627588.png\" data-orig-size=\"412,244\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"test bilat\" data-image-description=\"\" data-medium-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-bilat-e1462176627588.png?fit=300%2C178&#038;ssl=1\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-bilat-e1462176627588.png?fit=412%2C244&#038;ssl=1\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-bilat-e1462176627588.png?w=308&#038;h=183&#038;ssl=1\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-bilat-e1462176627588.png?w=412&amp;ssl=1 412w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-bilat-e1462176627588.png?resize=300%2C178&amp;ssl=1 300w\" width=\"308\" height=\"183\" loading=\"lazy\" data-original-width=\"308\" data-original-height=\"183\" itemprop=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/image\" title=\"test bilat\" alt=\"Test bilat\u00e9ral\" style=\"width: 308px; height: 183px;\" \/> <\/a> <div class=\"tiled-gallery-caption\" itemprop=\"caption description\"> Test bilat\u00e9ral <\/div> <\/div> <\/div> <!-- close group --> <div class=\"gallery-group images-1\" style=\"width: 317px; height: 187px;\" data-original-width=\"317\" data-original-height=\"187\" > <div class=\"tiled-gallery-item tiled-gallery-item-large\" itemprop=\"associatedMedia\" itemscope itemtype=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/test-unilat\/\" border=\"0\" itemprop=\"url\"> <meta itemprop=\"width\" content=\"313\"> <meta itemprop=\"height\" content=\"183\"> <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" data-attachment-id=\"940\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-unilat-e1462176659460.png\" data-orig-size=\"392,229\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"test unilat\" data-image-description=\"\" data-medium-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-unilat-e1462176659460.png?fit=300%2C175&#038;ssl=1\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-unilat-e1462176659460.png?fit=392%2C229&#038;ssl=1\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-unilat-e1462176659460.png?w=313&#038;h=183&#038;ssl=1\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-unilat-e1462176659460.png?w=392&amp;ssl=1 392w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/test-unilat-e1462176659460.png?resize=300%2C175&amp;ssl=1 300w\" width=\"313\" height=\"183\" loading=\"lazy\" data-original-width=\"313\" data-original-height=\"183\" itemprop=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/image\" title=\"test unilat\" alt=\"Test unilat\u00e9ral\" style=\"width: 313px; height: 183px;\" \/> <\/a> <div class=\"tiled-gallery-caption\" itemprop=\"caption description\"> Test unilat\u00e9ral <\/div> <\/div> <\/div> <!-- close group --> <\/div> <!-- close row --> <\/div>\n<h2 id=\"test\">D. Choisir le test adapt\u00e9<\/h2>\n<p>Tableau r\u00e9capitulatif<span class=\"zp-InText-zp-ID--1093634-ETSNPEBX--wp233 zp-InText-Citation loading\" rel=\"{ 'pages': 'np', 'items': '{1093634:ETSNPEBX}', 'format': '(%num%)', 'brackets': '', 'etal': '', 'separator': '', 'and': '' }\"><\/span><\/p>\n<p>[gview file=\u00a0\u00bbhttp:\/\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/Choix-test-statistique.pdf\u00a0\u00bb]<\/p>\n<p>Une multitude de tests statistiques existent. Chaque test a ses propres conditions d\u2019application.<\/p>\n<p>Afin de d\u00e9terminer le test adapt\u00e9, on a besoin d\u2019identifier certains crit\u00e8res\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Nature des variables<\/li>\n<li>Nombre de groupes<\/li>\n<li>Appariement ou ind\u00e9pendance des groupes<\/li>\n<li>Taille<\/li>\n<li>Normalit\u00e9 de la distribution<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Si vous ne voulez pas apprendre un logiciel statistique, le site <a href=\"https:\/\/biostatgv.sentiweb.fr\/\">BiostatTGV<\/a> permet de faire la plupart des tests statistiques de mani\u00e8re simple et intuitive. Allez jeter un coup d\u2019\u0153il, vous ne le regretterez pas\u00a0!<\/p>\n<h3>1. Nature des variables<\/h3>\n<p>Comme vu pr\u00e9c\u00e9demment, il existe plusieurs cat\u00e9gories de variables\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Variable <strong>quantitative\u00a0<\/strong>: on compare la <strong>moyenne<\/strong> ou la <strong>variance<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Variable <strong>qualitative<\/strong> (nominale ou ordinale)\u00a0: on compare des <strong>pourcentages<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Variable <strong>censur\u00e9e\u00a0<\/strong>: on compare la survie via une <strong>analyse de survie<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>2. Nombre de groupes<\/h3>\n<p>Il faut distinguer les tests comparant\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>2 groupes<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>&gt; 2 groupes<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>3. Appariement ou ind\u00e9pendance ?<\/h3>\n<p>2 groupes sont dits <strong>appari\u00e9s<\/strong> lorsque chaque individu inclus dans un groupe correspondra \u00e0\u00a0un sujet semblable (sur l\u2019\u00e2ge, le sexe, le poids\u2026) dans l\u2019autre groupe.<\/p>\n<p>Cette m\u00e9thode permet <strong>d\u2019am\u00e9liorer la puissance<\/strong> de l\u2019\u00e9tude en diminuant la variance d\u2019un param\u00e8tre \u00e9tudi\u00e9 (on diminue la variance parasite des autres param\u00e8tres).<\/p>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: on fait une mesure \u00e0 2 reprises sur un m\u00eame sujet (avant et apr\u00e8s un traitement). En choisissant le m\u00eame sujet, on diminue la variabilit\u00e9 inter-individuelle et on augmente la puissance. <\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Cette m\u00e9thode est tr\u00e8s utilis\u00e9e dans les \u00e9tudes cas-t\u00e9moins\u00a0: pour chaque cas (malade) on va lui choisir un t\u00e9moin (non malade) semblable sur certains crit\u00e8res (\u00e2ge, sexe\u2026). Elle est particuli\u00e8rement int\u00e9ressante dans ce type d\u2019\u00e9tude car la puissance est faible due au faible nombre de sujets (maladie rare).<\/p>\n<p>Si les sujets sont appari\u00e9s, on utilisera une cat\u00e9gorie particuli\u00e8re de tests (tr\u00e8s proches des tests pour les groupes non appari\u00e9s).<\/p>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: t Student pour donn\u00e9es appari\u00e9es<\/em><\/p>\n<h3>4. Taille<\/h3>\n<p>Le nombre d\u2019observations\u00a0<strong>seuil est diff\u00e9rent en fonction de la nature des variables\u00a0<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Qualitative<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>&lt; 5\u00a0<\/strong>: petit \u00e9chantillon, on choisira souvent un test exact de Fisher.<\/li>\n<li><strong>&gt; 5\u00a0<\/strong>: on choisira souvent un test du Chi-2.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Quantitative\u00a0<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>&lt; 30\u00a0<\/strong>: petit \u00e9chantillon, on utilisera souvent le test de Mann-Withney.<\/li>\n<li><strong>&gt; 30\u00a0<\/strong>: grands \u00e9chantillons, on utilisera souvent le test t de Student en faisant la supposition qu\u2019\u00e0 partir de 30 \u00e9chantillons tir\u00e9s au sort, la distribution suivra\u00a0une loi normale.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>5. Normalit\u00e9 de la distribution<\/h3>\n<p>La <strong>distribution<\/strong> du param\u00e8tre mesur\u00e9 a son importance. On distingue 2 situations\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>La distribution de la variable ressemble \u00e0 une distribution connue, on peut ainsi caract\u00e9riser sa distribution par des param\u00e8tres sp\u00e9cifiques estim\u00e9s sur l\u2019\u00e9chantillon. En pratique, on regarde si la <strong>distribution de la variable suit une loi normale<\/strong> et peut \u00eatre approxim\u00e9e par les param\u00e8tres caract\u00e9risant une loi normale, \u00e0 savoir la moyenne et la variance.\n<ul>\n<li>On effectuera un <strong>test param\u00e9trique.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>La distribution de la variable <strong>ne ressemble pas \u00e0 une distribution normale<\/strong>, on ne pourra pas caract\u00e9riser cette distribution par des param\u00e8tres.\n<ul>\n<li>On effectuera un <strong>test non param\u00e9trique.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pourquoi faut-il privil\u00e9gier un test param\u00e9trique\u00a0?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Les tests param\u00e9triques sont un peu <strong>plus puissants<\/strong> que les tests non param\u00e9triques.<\/p>\n<p>En revanche, ils ne peuvent \u00eatre utilis\u00e9s que dans des <strong>conditions de normalit\u00e9<\/strong> alors que les tests non param\u00e9triques sont plus robustes et peuvent s\u2019appliquer ind\u00e9pendamment de la distribution et de la taille de l\u2019\u00e9chantillon.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>NB\u00a0: la loi des grands nombres<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Vous remarquerez que lorsqu\u2019on observe &gt; 30 valeurs d\u2019une variable quantitative, on parle de grand \u00e9chantillon et qu\u2019on consid\u00e8re que cette variable a une distribution normale.<\/p>\n<p>En effet, la loi des grands nombres indique que lorsqu\u2019on fait un tirage al\u00e9atoire dans une s\u00e9rie de grande taille, plus on augmente la taille de l\u2019\u00e9chantillon, plus les caract\u00e9ristiques statistiques du tirage (l\u2019\u00e9chantillon) se rapprochent des caract\u00e9ristiques statistiques de la population.<\/p>\n<p>Or lorsqu\u2019on mesure la caract\u00e9ristique d\u2019une population enti\u00e8re, on se rend compte que la distribution de cette variable mesur\u00e9e suit une loi normale (la nature est bien faite). Ainsi, lorsqu\u2019on mesure cette m\u00eame caract\u00e9ristique dans un \u00e9chantillon d\u2019au moins 30 sujets, la distribution de cette variable va suivre la m\u00eame loi que la population, c\u2019est \u00e0 dire une loi normale, pratique\u00a0\ud83d\ude09<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Comment savoir si la distribution de la variable est normale\u00a0?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Le caract\u00e8re normale de la distribution aura une influence sur le choix du test statistique. Il existe plusieurs m\u00e9thodes pour d\u00e9terminer\u00a0si la distribution est normale.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>1<sup>\u00e8re<\/sup> m\u00e9thode graphique\u00a0: <strong>l\u2019histogramme<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>C\u2019est la 1<sup>\u00e8re<\/sup> chose \u00e0 faire, on regarde \u00e0 l\u2019\u0153il nu si la distribution suit une loi normale \u00ab\u00a0en forme de cloche\u00a0\u00bb ou de \u00ab\u00a0courbe de Gauss\u00a0\u00bb.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_617\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-617\" data-attachment-id=\"617\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/histogramme-normal\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/histogramme-normal-e1462176800663.png?fit=751%2C576&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"751,576\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"histogramme normal\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/histogramme-normal-e1462176800663.png?fit=629%2C482&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"wp-image-617 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/histogramme-normal-e1462176800663-300x230.png?resize=300%2C230&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"histogramme normal\" width=\"300\" height=\"230\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/histogramme-normal-e1462176800663.png?resize=300%2C230&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/histogramme-normal-e1462176800663.png?resize=600%2C460&amp;ssl=1 600w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/histogramme-normal-e1462176800663.png?w=751&amp;ssl=1 751w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-617\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Histogramme normalis\u00e9<\/p><\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>2<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> m\u00e9thode graphique\u00a0: <strong>le diagramme Quantile-Quantile<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>D\u00e9finition\u00a0: outil graphique permettant d\u2019\u00e9valuer la pertinence de l\u2019ajustement d\u2019une distribution d\u2019une variable \u00e0 une distribution th\u00e9orique (ici la distribution normale).<\/p>\n<p>Le nom \u00ab\u00a0quantile\u00a0\u00bb vient du fait qu\u2019on compare certains quantiles de la population observ\u00e9e avec certains quantiles de la population th\u00e9orique.<\/p>\n<p>Anglais\u00a0: <em>Q-Q plot<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Synonyme\u00a0: diagramme Q-Q<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_625\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-625\" data-attachment-id=\"625\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/qq-plot\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/QQ-plot-e1462176856818.png?fit=622%2C450&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"622,450\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"QQ plot\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/QQ-plot-e1462176856818.png?fit=622%2C450&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"wp-image-625 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/QQ-plot-e1462176856818-300x217.png?resize=300%2C217&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"QQ plot\" width=\"300\" height=\"217\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/QQ-plot-e1462176856818.png?resize=300%2C217&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/QQ-plot-e1462176856818.png?resize=600%2C434&amp;ssl=1 600w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/QQ-plot-e1462176856818.png?w=622&amp;ssl=1 622w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-625\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Q-Q plot<\/p><\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>M\u00e9thode statistique\u00a0:<strong> test de Shapiro-Wilk<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>On pose les hypoth\u00e8ses\u00a0:<\/p>\n<p>H0\u00a0: la distribution de la variable est normale.<\/p>\n<p>H1\u00a0: la distribution n\u2019est pas normale.<\/p>\n<p>Si p &lt; alpha, on rejette H0, on conclue que la distribution ne suit pas une loi normale.<\/p>\n<p>NB\u00a0: on peut utiliser aussi le test de Kolmogorov-Smirnov qui test si la distribution de la variable suit une loi donn\u00e9e connue par sa fonction de r\u00e9partition continue.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Limites<\/strong> : ces 3 m\u00e9thodes ont leurs limites, il faut les interpr\u00e9ter avec pr\u00e9caution :\n<ul>\n<li>La m\u00e9thode <strong>statistique<\/strong> permet de trancher mais avec les <strong>risques d\u2019erreur<\/strong> inh\u00e9rent \u00e0 tout test statistique. Ainsi, si p &gt; alpha, <strong>on ne rejette pas H0 mais on ne peut pas l\u2019accepter pour autant<\/strong>. C\u2019est d\u2019autant plus vrai que l\u2019\u00e9chantillon est faible car la puissance le sera aussi.<\/li>\n<li>Les m\u00e9thodes <strong>graphiques<\/strong> ne permettent pas de trancher de manier objective sur la normalit\u00e9 de la distribution. On regarde <strong>\u00e0 l\u2019\u0153il nu<\/strong> si la distribution suit \u00e0 peu pr\u00e8s une loi normale, on d\u00e9cide de mani\u00e8re <strong>subjective<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>6. Tableau des tests statistiques<\/h3>\n<p>Je vous propose un tableau r\u00e9capitulatif fait par mes soins. Il est bien s\u00fbr critiquable mais il permettra d\u2019avoir une vision d\u2019ensemble. N\u2019h\u00e9sitez pas \u00e0 regarder le tableau de <a href=\"https:\/\/biostatgv.sentiweb.fr\/?module=tests\">BiostatTGV<\/a> qui est beaucoup plus juste, il propose notamment un algorithme pour vous aider \u00e0 choisir le meilleur test pour vos donn\u00e9es.<\/p>\n<p>Rmq\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Utiliser les logiciels de statistique reconnus (SAS, SPSS\u00a0; Stata, EPI Info\u2026)<\/li>\n<li>Les tests peu courants doivent \u00eatre justifi\u00e9 (r\u00e9f\u00e9rence bibliographique)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table width=\"608\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" rowspan=\"4\"><\/td>\n<td colspan=\"4\">Variable \u00e0 expliquer<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"3\">qualitative<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"3\">quantitative<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\">nominale<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\">ordinale<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2 groupes<\/td>\n<td>&gt; 2 groupes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td rowspan=\"6\">Variable explicative<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"4\">Qualitative<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\">2 groupes<\/td>\n<td>Ind\u00e9pendant<\/td>\n<td>&gt; 5\u00a0: Chi2<\/p>\n<p>&lt; 5\u00a0: Test exact de Fisher<\/td>\n<td>&gt; 5\u00a0: Chi2<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>&gt; 30 ou normale\u00a0: t de Student<\/p>\n<p>&lt; 30\u00a0: Test de Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Appari\u00e9e<\/td>\n<td>&gt; 5\u00a0: Chi2 de Mac Nemar<\/p>\n<p>&lt; 5\u00a0: Test exact de Fisher<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Test de rangs sign\u00e9s de Wilcoxon<\/td>\n<td>&gt; 30\u00a0ou normale : t de Student appari\u00e9<\/p>\n<p>&lt; 30\u00a0: Test de rangs sign\u00e9s de Wilcoxon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td rowspan=\"2\">&gt; 2 groupes<\/td>\n<td>Ind\u00e9pendant<\/td>\n<td>Chi2<\/td>\n<td>Chi2<\/td>\n<td>Test de Kruskal-Wallis<\/td>\n<td>ANOVA (Analyse de variance)<\/p>\n<p>Test de Kruskal-Wallis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Appari\u00e9<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2\">Test de Friedman<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"3\">quantitative<\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2\">R\u00e9gression logistique<\/td>\n<td>Test de corr\u00e9lation de Spearman<\/p>\n<p>(Tau de Kendall)<\/td>\n<td>R\u00e9gression lin\u00e9aire<\/p>\n<p>Test de corr\u00e9lation de Pearson<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"3\">censur\u00e9e<\/td>\n<td colspan=\"3\">Test du logrank<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>L\u00e9gende\u00a0:<\/p>\n<p>&lt; 5, &gt; 5, &lt; 30 et &gt; 30 correspondent au nombre d\u2019\u00e9chantillons tir\u00e9s au sort<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"p\">E. Calcul du \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb et interpr\u00e9tation<\/h2>\n<p>Apr\u00e8s avoir pos\u00e9 les hypoth\u00e8ses H0 et H1 pos\u00e9es ainsi que les risque alpha et beta, les donn\u00e9es sont collect\u00e9es. Lors de l\u2019analyse statistique, on va retenir 1 des 2 hypoth\u00e8ses\u00a0: soit on accepte H0, soit en rejette H0. Pour nous aider dans ce choix, on va calculer un param\u00e8tre d\u00e9sign\u00e9 par la lettre \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>D\u00e9finition\u00a0: probabilit\u00e9 d\u2019observer des r\u00e9sultats au moins aussi en d\u00e9saccord avec H0 que ceux qui ont \u00e9t\u00e9 obtenus.<\/li>\n<li>Anglais\u00a0: <em>p-value<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Synonyme\u00a0: petit p<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><em>Ex\u00a0: on reprend le 4<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> cas, 83 sujets ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe \u00ab\u00a0kin\u00e9\u00a0\u00bb et 77 patients ont gu\u00e9ri dans le groupe \u00ab\u00a0pas de kin\u00e9\u00a0\u00bb au bout de 2 semaines.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>On suppose que H0 est vraie, c\u2019est \u00e0 dire que le taux de gu\u00e9rison est identique entre les 2 groupes. Si refait plusieurs \u00e9tudes identiques, le taux de gu\u00e9rison sera presque toujours voisin dans les 2 groupes \u00e9tant donn\u00e9 que H0 est vraie. Cependant, parfois, \u00e0 cause du hasard du tirage au sort, le taux de gu\u00e9rison peut \u00eatre tr\u00e8s diff\u00e9rent entre les 2 groupes.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Ainsi, le \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb correspond \u00e0 la fr\u00e9quence d\u2019observation d\u2019une diff\u00e9rence \u2265 \u00e0 celle r\u00e9alis\u00e9e dans l\u2019essai r\u00e9alis\u00e9 <em>(ici, 83 \u2013 77 = 6%)<\/em>, en partant du principe\u00a0que la prise en charge est identique.<\/p>\n<p>\u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb quantifie le d\u00e9saccord observ\u00e9 entre l\u2019exp\u00e9rience r\u00e9alis\u00e9e et l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se nulle.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>En pratique, une fois le \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb calcul\u00e9\u00a0:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Si p \u2264 alpha, H1 est accept\u00e9e<\/li>\n<li>Si p &gt; alpha, H0 est accept\u00e9e<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>1. L\u2019usage abusif du \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb<\/h3>\n<p><em>Tab \u2013 Interpr\u00e9tations erron\u00e9es du p <\/em><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"185\"><strong>le <em>p<\/em> n\u2019est pas<\/strong><\/td>\n<td width=\"229\"><strong>le <em>p<\/em> est<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"185\"><em>p<\/em> n\u2019est pas la probabilit\u00e9 de l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se nulle<\/td>\n<td width=\"229\"><em>p<\/em> est la probabilit\u00e9 d\u2019obtenir le r\u00e9sultat observ\u00e9 si l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se nulle est vraie<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"185\"><em>p<\/em> n\u2019est pas la probabilit\u00e9 d\u2019absence de diff\u00e9rence<\/td>\n<td width=\"229\"><em>p<\/em> est la probabilit\u00e9 d\u2019observer une diff\u00e9rence au moins aussi importante si en r\u00e9alit\u00e9 il n\u2019y a pas de diff\u00e9rence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"185\"><em>p<\/em> n\u2019est pas la probabilit\u00e9 que le traitement n\u2019ait pas d\u2019effet<\/td>\n<td width=\"229\"><em>p<\/em> est la probabilit\u00e9 d\u2019obtenir le r\u00e9sultat qui a \u00e9t\u00e9 observ\u00e9 si le traitement est en r\u00e9alit\u00e9 inefficace<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"185\"><em>p<\/em>&lt;0.05% ne signifie pas qu\u2019il y a moins de 5% de chance que le traitement soit sans effet<\/td>\n<td width=\"229\">Il y a moins de 5% d\u2019observer le r\u00e9sultat obtenu si le traitement est sans effet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"185\"><em>p<\/em> n\u2019est pas Pr(H<sub>0<\/sub>) ou 1-Pr(H<sub>1<\/sub>)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><em>p<\/em> n\u2019est pas la probabilit\u00e9 de l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se nulle<\/td>\n<td width=\"229\"><em>p<\/em>\u00a0=\u00a0Pr(r\u00e9sultat\/H<sub>0<\/sub>)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><em>p<\/em> est la probabilit\u00e9 conditionnelle du r\u00e9sultat sous l\u2019hypoth\u00e8se nulle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>(PS : je ne me rappelle plus de quel polycopi\u00e9 de LCA est issu ce tableau)<\/p>\n<h3>2. Pourquoi 5% ?<\/h3>\n<p>La valeur de 5% est commun\u00e9ment admise bien qu\u2019elle ne repose sur aucune justification pr\u00e9cise. N\u00e9anmoins, cette probabilit\u00e9 est \u00e0 adapter au probl\u00e8me pos\u00e9.<\/p>\n<p><em>Par exemple, si on veut faire la preuve d\u00e9finitive de l\u2019efficacit\u00e9 d\u2019un vaccin lors d\u2019un essai de grande envergure, on va poser des conditions strictes, \u00e0 savoir un p &lt; 1 % (voir plus faible).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>En revanche, si on fait un essai sur une maladie rare, sans traitement curatif, et que l\u2019on cherche \u00e0 avoir une id\u00e9e (plus ou moins objective) de son efficacit\u00e9, on pourra choisir un p &lt; 10 %<\/em><\/p>\n<h3>3. Multiplicit\u00e9 des tests<\/h3>\n<p>En augmentant le nombre de tests statistiques, on augmente le risque de trouver \u00e0 tort une diff\u00e9rence statistique. Le risque alpha fix\u00e9 a priori \u00e0 5 % va augmenter avec le nombre de tests statistiques, on appelle cela le <strong>risque d\u2019inflation du risque alpha.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>En effet, si on a 5 % de chance de se tromper et qu\u2019on fait 20 tests, il y aura au moins 1 test qui conclura \u00e0 une diff\u00e9rence (rejet H0) alors qu\u2019il n\u2019y en a pas (H0 vraie).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Le tableau suivant met en \u00e9vidence l\u2019augmentation du risque alpha global en fonction du nombre de tests\u00a0:<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">Nombre de test (seuil alpha = 5 %)<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">Risque global d\u2019erreur<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">1<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">5 %<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">2<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">10%<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">10<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">40%<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">50<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">92%<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">k<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">1 &#8211; 0,95^k<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Ce risque peut \u00eatre corrig\u00e9 via la <strong>correction de Bonferroni<\/strong> en baissant le risque alpha initial en fonction du nombre de tests pr\u00e9vus.<\/p>\n<p>On peut calculer ce risque corrig\u00e9 par la formule alpha\u2019 = alpha\/n avec n\u00a0: nombre de tests.<\/p>\n<p>Le tableau suivant donne les valeurs du risque alpha corrig\u00e9\u00a0:<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">K<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">Bonferroni (%)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">1<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">5,00<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">2<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">2,50<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">3<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">1,57<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">4<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">1,25<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">5<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">1,00<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">10<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">0,50<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"226\">20<\/td>\n<td width=\"226\">0,25<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><strong>Avantage\u00a0: <\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Corrige le risque d\u2019inflation du risque alpha<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Limite le risque de <strong><em>data dredging\u00a0<\/em><\/strong><span class=\"mceItemHidden\">(<\/span>\u00ab\u00a0triturage de donn\u00e9es\u00a0\u00bb en fran\u00e7ais), cette technique statistique consiste \u00e0 faire de tests statistiques sur de nombreuses variables et ne publier que celles statistiquement significatives au sens de la valeur du \u00ab\u00a0p\u00a0\u00bb (on parle de <em>p-hacking<\/em>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Limite\u00a0<\/strong>: diminue la puissance<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Quand y penser\u00a0?<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Analyse interm\u00e9diaire<\/strong>\u00a0: analyse r\u00e9alis\u00e9e avant la fin de l\u2019\u00e9tude<\/li>\n<li><strong>Multiplicit\u00e9 des crit\u00e8res de jugement<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Analyse en sous groupe<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Essai avec &gt; 2 groupes<\/strong> (doses multiples, stratifications\u2026)<\/li>\n<li>Parfois pour la comparaison de<strong> caract\u00e9ristique des populations (tableau 1)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"correlation\">F. Corr\u00e9lation n\u2019est pas causalit\u00e9<\/h2>\n<p>L\u2019observation d\u2019une corr\u00e9lation statistiquement significative entre 2 variables ne justifie pas d\u2019un lien de causalit\u00e9.<\/p>\n<p>Dans le chapitre sur les essais \u00e9tiologiques, afin d\u2019\u00e9tablir un lien de causalit\u00e9 entre un facteur et un \u00e9v\u00e9nement, il faut respecter un certain nombre de crit\u00e8res (Bradford-Hill).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><em>L\u2019exemple le plus connu est issu d\u2019un article du NEJM <span class=\"zp-InText-zp-ID--1093634-7ST2AS9I--wp233 zp-InText-Citation loading\" rel=\"{ 'pages': 'np', 'items': '{1093634:7ST2AS9I}', 'format': '(%num%)', 'brackets': '', 'etal': '', 'separator': '', 'and': '' }\"><\/span>, o\u00f9 les auteurs analys\u00e9 la corr\u00e9lation entre la consommation de chocolat et le d\u00e9veloppement des fonctions cognitives mesur\u00e9 par le nombre de prix Nobel par pays.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>Le graphique est assez parlant\u00a0:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"631\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize.jpg?fit=480%2C417&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"480,417\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize.jpg?fit=480%2C417&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"size-full wp-image-631 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize.jpg?resize=480%2C417&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize\" width=\"480\" height=\"417\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize.jpg?w=480&amp;ssl=1 480w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/chocolate-consumption-and-nobel-prize.jpg?resize=300%2C261&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 480px) 100vw, 480px\" \/><\/p>\n<p><em>La corr\u00e9lation entre la consommation de chocolat et le nombre de prix Nobel est tr\u00e8s significative avec r = 0,791 et p&lt;0,0001.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>Vous pouvez regarder cette vid\u00e9o \u00ab\u00a0les statistiques expliqu\u00e9es \u00e0 mon chat\u00a0\u00bb illustrant ce cas :<\/em><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/aOX0pIwBCvw\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><em>Un 2<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> exemple est celui de la corr\u00e9lation entre la part de march\u00e9 d\u2019Internet Explorer et le nombre de meurtres aux Etats-Unis d\u2019Am\u00e9rique.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"632\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/murder-internet\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/murder-internet.jpg?fit=636%2C358&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"636,358\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"murder internet\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/murder-internet.jpg?fit=629%2C354&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-632 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/murder-internet.jpg?resize=629%2C354&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"murder internet\" width=\"629\" height=\"354\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/murder-internet.jpg?w=636&amp;ssl=1 636w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/lepcam.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/04\/murder-internet.jpg?resize=300%2C169&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 629px) 100vw, 629px\" \/><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h1 id=\"autre\">IV. Autres type d\u2019analyse<\/h1>\n<h2>A. Analyse de survie<\/h2>\n<p><strong>(Le mod\u00e8le de Cox\/ Test du Log-rank)<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>D\u00e9finition\u00a0: analyse <strong>temporelle <\/strong>du d\u00e9lai de survenue d\u2019un crit\u00e8re principal <strong>binaire<\/strong> (d\u00e9c\u00e8s, r\u00e9cidive&#8230;). On suppose que le risque de d\u00e9c\u00e8s soit <strong>constant <\/strong>tout au long de l\u2019\u00e9tude<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Analyse\u00a0:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Descriptive\u00a0<\/strong>: Courbe de <strong>Kaplan-Meier<\/strong>. (\u00e0 t0, on doit retrouver la population en intention de traiter)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Univari\u00e9e\u00a0<\/strong>: <strong>Te<\/strong><strong>st du Log-Rank<\/strong>\u00a0(comparaison des surfaces sous les courbes)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Multivari\u00e9e\u00a0<\/strong>: <strong>Mod\u00e8le de Cox<\/strong>\u00a0(ajustement sur les facteurs de confusion)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>B. Analyse qualitative<\/h2>\n<p><em>En cours de r\u00e9daction&#8230;<\/em><\/p>\n<h2>C. Analyse d\u00e9cisionnelle<\/h2>\n<p><em>En cours de r\u00e9daction&#8230;<\/em><\/p>\n<h2>D. 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id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-WSNAV6FU\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">3.7\u2013.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-5C83BXKP\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">13.4% of participants fell within the KDIGO 2012 moderate risk CKD, 0.9\u20135.6% within the high-risk group and 0.3\u20134.8% within the very high-risk group.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-U7VZZSRR\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Orlandi PF, Huang J, Fukagawa M, et al. A collaborative, individual-level analysis compared longitudinal outcomes across the International Network of Chronic Kidney Disease (iNETCKD) cohorts. Kidney Int. 2019;96:1217\u201333.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-QHKDBIRN\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Fig. 3 Prevalence of each KDIGO 2012 category in general population samples.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-3AV944QR\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Applying KDIGO criteria, 450 (50%) were defined as moderate risk, 86 (10%) high risk and 69 (8%) very high risk. 33% did not have a uACR recorded to determine risk.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-SV3FU3SI\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">905 patients met the inclusion criteria (6% of the population).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-A5AQC9BH\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">14,525 patients.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-89KGJRJM\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Primary Care software to extract data.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-DBQ2BIYD\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Introducing a Cardiovascular Renal Metabolic Service to Optimise the\u00a0 Management of Chronic Kidney Disease in Primary Care. An Interface\u00a0 Project.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-5JGW36MF\" data-zp-author-date='Linden-et-al.-2025-04-09' data-zp-date-author='2025-04-09-Linden-et-al.' data-zp-date='2025-04-09' data-zp-year='2025' data-zp-itemtype='journalArticle' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Linden P, Leonard N, Conlan J. Introducing a Cardiovascular Renal Metabolic Service to Optimise the Management of Chronic Kidney Disease in Primary Care. An Interface Project. | International Journal of Integrated Care. 2025 Apr 9 [cited 2025 Sept 24]; Available from: <a class='zp-ItemURL' href='https:\/\/ijic.org\/articles\/10.5334\/ijic.ICIC24496'>https:\/\/ijic.org\/articles\/10.5334\/ijic.ICIC24496<\/a><\/div>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-NVMSN59U\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">public and private facilities.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-LCD6B632\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Risk profile, quality of life and care of patients with moderate\u00a0 and advanced CKD: The French CKD-REIN Cohort Study.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-HNV9NLBN\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Overall distribution according to KDIGO 2012 risk groups showed 7.4% at low or moderate, 15.8% at high and 65.5% at very high risk, while 11.2% were unclassified due to missing albuminuria (Figure 1.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-PWNAZUB3\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">23. Stengel B, Metzger M, Combe C, et al. Risk profile, quality of life and care of patients with moderate and advanced CKD: the French CKD-REIN Cohort Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2019;34:277\u201386.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-N3XZWQ6Z\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">participants fell within the KDIGO 2012 lowrisk group, 3.7\u201313.4% within the moderately increased risk group, 0.9\u20135.6% within the highrisk group and 0.3\u20134.8% within the very highrisk group.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-4UVS3FK9\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">ost fell within the KDIGO 2012 low-risk or moderate-risk groups, with 0.9\u20135.6% in the high-risk and 0.3\u20134.8% in the very high-risk groups.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-5HMBESS2\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">revalence of CKD (GFR categories G3\u20135), ranging from 2% to 17%.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-NV9HSB6Q\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Adv Ther (2021).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-MGJR4HRT\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Burden of Chronic Kidney Disease by KDIGO Categories of Glomerular Filtration Rate and Albuminuria: A Systematic Review.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-DU57T8ZR\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">1.1).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-ZFMNHDA9\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">6.5.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-N76RFVZP\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">23.8.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-GBEQF7IT\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">68.6.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-BI3X9KPE\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">CKD stage at first qualifying eGFR measurement.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-CJTBKVAG\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">testing within 6 months of CKD diagnosis.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-H4QWENIJ\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">6529 patients with CKD (18.4%) received follow-up urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-LGFJ5SMF\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">With Diabetes and Hypertension (n = 14 859 [32.2%]).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-9S49AALH\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">With Diabetes (n = 6770 [14.7%]).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-K3T2S85Z\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">6770 (14.7%) had diabetes without\u00a0 hypertension, 16 930 (36.7%) had hypertension only, and 14 859 (32.2%) had both diabetes and\u00a0 hypertension.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-UG4DEHZK\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">56.0).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-4QZLLW6E\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">69.2 (14.0).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-BNCZ2LB4\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">6 162 patients (mean [SD] age, 69.2 [14.0] years; 25 855\u00a0 [56.0%] female) from primary care practices.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-CGQT4G2Q\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Only 6529 patients (18.4%) with CKD received a urine albumin test within 6\u00a0 months of CKD diagnosis,.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-TUV5J634\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">with stage 3 to 5 CKD.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-CUF55GJJ\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">46 162 patients (mean [SD] age, 69.2 [14.0].<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-DJBBP6YY\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">2019.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-6W74YU8A\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Quality of Chronic Kidney Disease Management\u00a0 in Canadian Primary Care.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-8QNE6QDR\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">Electronic medical\u00a0 record.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-G88L2LIA\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">\u2022 The estimated prevalence of CKD in France at 8%\u201310% is close to that expected.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-WZ4EFDPU\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">n France, the MONALISA study using three representative cross-sectional surveys in subjects aged 35\u201374.9 years estimated the CKD prevalence at 8.2% (95% CI, 7.4\u20138.9%).<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-2XNSCD9A\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">18% of individuals treated for diabetes.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-MX9VFK4H\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">54% women.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-AFM6WFE2\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">in the \u2018likely\u2019 group.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-L4NFTMBB\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">in the \u2018certain\u2019 group, 68 years.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-XHQDQ6SU\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">The median age was 67 years.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-AWDYR4TG\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">n 2021, representing an estimated prevalence in the general population increasing from 8.1% to 10.5%.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-HLH5VSDX\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">RENALGO-EXPERT algorithm identified 4.5% of the volunteers in the CONSTANCES as CKD.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-6KVQUSUJ\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">the estimated prevalence in the SNDS increased from 8.1% to 10.5%.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-7PEZ4939\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">CONSTANCES.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-233-1093634-XJRBALW5\" data-zp-author-date='-0000-00-00' data-zp-date-author='0000-00-00-' data-zp-date='0000-00-00' data-zp-year='0000' data-zp-itemtype='annotation' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; \">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\" style=\"clear: left; \">\n    <div class=\"csl-left-margin\" style=\"float: left; padding-right: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 1em;\">1.<\/div><div class=\"csl-right-inline\" style=\"margin: 0 .4em 0 1.5em;\">SNDS.<\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem --><\/div><!-- .zp-zp-SEO-Content -->\n<\/div><!-- .zp-List --><\/div><!--.zp-Zotpress-->\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>II. Les bases des tests statistiques Les tests d\u2019hypoth\u00e8se permettent d\u2019aider \u00e0 la validation d\u2019hypoth\u00e8ses. Ils permettent de r\u00e9duire la subjectivit\u00e9, en rendant les choix plus objectifs et plus transparent pour pouvoir les critiquer. &nbsp; Si vous voulez directement r\u00e9aliser vos tests statistiques de mani\u00e8re facile, aller directement sur le site pvalue.io qui est tr\u00e8s [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":147,"menu_order":41,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-233","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.7 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Introduction aux tests statistiques - LEPCAM<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Tout ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur les tests statistiques : hypoth\u00e8se nulle et alternative, risque d&#039;erreur, test uni\/bilat\u00e9ral, choix, &quot;p&quot;...\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/lepcam.fr\/index.php\/les-etapes\/test\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"fr_FR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Introduction aux tests statistiques - 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